The Canon of Polykleitos

Just as Greek architects defined and followed a set of standards for ideal temple design, Greek sculptors sought an ideal for representing the human body. sculptors studied actual humans closely and selected those characteristics they considered most desirable, such as regular facial features, smooth skin, and particular body proportions. They would then combine them into a single idea of physical perfection. Polykleitos's Spearbearer, also known as Doryphoros and The Canon, was probably one of the most well-known sculptures during the High Classical Period. He developed a rules for what he considered creating the perfect human figure. Not only did the artist experiment with proportions, but he also dealt with the relationships between weight-bearing as well as relaxed arms and legs in a perfectly balanced figure, which would be called a contrapposto. The figure pictured here is a Doryphoros Roman marble copy showing a male athlete, perfectly balanced, with all the weight supported by the right leg. This pose evolved from that of the Kritios boy, but is especially known for more of the tilt and an S-curve.

Temple of Portunus

The Temple of Portunus dates from the Roman Republic period, which reflects both on Etruscan and Greek practices. Like the Etruscans, the Romans built urban temples in commercial centers as well as in special sanctuaries. An early example is a small rectangular temple standing on a raised platform beside the Tiber River in Rome, probably from the second century BCE and probably dedicated to Portunus, the god of harbors and ports. This temple acts as the perfect hybrid of Greek and Etruscan temples. The pseudoperipteral plan consists of a rectangular cella and a front porch at one end reached by a broad, inviting flight of steps, but the Roman architects have adopted the Greek Ionic order, with full columns on the porch and  engaged columns around the exterior walls of the cella with a continuous frieze in the entablature. At a first glance this temple may look Greek, but there are two main differences to distinguish it from Roman architecture. First, Roman architects released the form of the column from its post-and-lintel structural base and engaged it onto the surface of the wall as a decorative feature. Second, while a Greek temple encourages viewers to walk around the building to explore its uniformly architecture, Roman temples are defined in relation to interior spaces in which visitors are invited to enter through only one opening, as opposed to many, along the longitudinal axis of a symmetrical plan.

The Erechtheion: An Unusual Ancient Greek Temple

Although the designer of the Erechtheion is unknown, we do know that Phidias was the sculptor under the direction of Perikles. The asymmetrical plan on several levels reflects the building's multiple functions in housing many different shrines. It is also conformed to the sharply sloping terrain on which it is located. Erechtheion stands on the site of the mythical contest between the sea god Poseidon and Athena for patronage over Athens. During this contest Poseidon struck a rock with his trident, bringing forth a spout of water, but Athena gave an olive tree to Athens and won the contest. The Athenians enclosed what they believed to be this sacred rock, bearing the marks of the  trident, in the Erechtheion north porch. 
The Erechtheion also housed the venerable wooden cult statue of Athena that was the center of the Panathenic festival. The north and east porches of the Erechtheion  have come to epitomize the Ionic order, serving as an important model for European architects since the eighteenth century. Taller and more slender in proportion that the Doric, the Ionic order also has richer and more elaborately carved decoration. The columns rise from molded bases and end in volute capitals; the frieze is continuous. The Porch of the Maidens on the south side facing the Parthenon, is even more famous. Raised on a a high base, its sic stately caryatids support simple Doric capitals and an Ionic entablature made up of bands of carved molding. In a pose characteristic of Classical figures, each caryatid's weight is supported on one engaged leg while the fee leg, in contrapposto, rests on the the ball of the foot. The three caryatids on the left have their right legs engaged, and the three on the right have their left legs engaged, creating a sense of closure, symmetry, and rhythm. 

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Athens%2C+Erechtheion&object=Building

Arch of Titus; The Story Behind the Destruction

This arch, dramatically situated at the highest point of the Via Sacra, is one of the most celebrated monuments in the Forum Romanum. The oldest surviving arch in Rome, it is the simplest, has only one opening, and is perhaps most well-proportioned of the arches still standing. It was built to commemorate the immensely popular emperor Titus, who died suddenly during a plague A.D. 81, after only a two year reign, and to celebrate his victory in Jerusalem. Domitian, the younger, not-so-popular brother of Titus, had the arch constructed to honor Titus' popularity, and possibly to take advantage of it for himself; it was dedicated in A.D. 85 with great pomp. There are several interesting relief sculptures on the arch, including depictions of the apotheosis of Titus (which is why the arch inscription refers to Divus Titus), and the spoils of the Jerusalem Temple carried in triumphal procession. The menorah and the table of show bread carried by Roman soldiers are thought to represent the procession at the dedication of the arch. The Arch of Titus, constructed of concrete and faced with marble, is essentially a free-standing gateway whose passage is covered by a barrel vault. The arch served as a giant based, 50 feet tall, for a lost bronze statue of the emperor in a four-horse chariot, a typical triumphal symbol. Applied to the faces of the arch are columns in the Composite order supporting an entablature. The inscription on the uppermost, or attic, story declares that the Senate and the Roman people erected the monument to honor Titus. Titus' capture of Jerusalem ended a fierce campaign to crush a revolt of the Jews in Palestine. The Romans sacked and destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem, carried off its sacred treasures, then displayed them in a triumphal procession in Rome. A relief on the inside walls of the arch, capturing the drama of the occasion, depicts Titus' soldiers flaunting this booty as they carry it through the streets of Rome. The soldiers are headed toward the right and through an arch, turned obliquely to project into the viewers' own space, thus allowing living spectators a sense of the press of a boisterous, disorderly crowd. They might expect at any moment to hear soldiers and onlookers shouting and chanting.

The mood of the procession depicted in this relief contrasts with the relaxed but formal solemnity of the procession portrayed on the Ara Pacis. Like the sculptors of the Ara Pacis, the sculptors of the Arch of Titus showed the spatial relationships among figures, varying depth of the relief by rendering nearer elements in higher relief than those more distant. A menorah, or seven-branched lampholder, from the Temple of Jerusalem, dominated the scene; the sculptors rendered it as if seen from the low point of view of a spectator at the event.

The Unmistakable Heroic Warrior

The Dying Gaul is an ancient Roman marble copy of a lost Hellenistic bronze sculpture which was commissioned some time between 230 BC and 220 BC by Attalus I of Pergamon to celebrate his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. The identity of the sculptor of the original is unknown, but it has been suggested that Epigonus may have been its sculptor. Recent research indicates that Epigonus probably knew the early fifth-century BCE sculpture of the Temple of Aphaia at Aegina, which included the Dying Warriors, and could have had it in mind when he created his own works. The bronze original was part of a victory monument made for the Sanctuary of Athena in Pergamon. Pliny the Elder wrote that Epigonus "surpassed others with his Trumpeter".

The statue depicts remarkable realism as this dying Gual struggles to support himself with his right arm. His face shows the depth of his pain as blood flows from the cut on his right chest. He only wears a torque around his neck showing the "realness" of the nudity. The Greeks admired those who fought in battle withough armor or clothing, this The Dying Gaul portrays a strong and brave figure. "The Dying Gaul became one of the most celebrated works to have survived from antiquity and was engraved and endlessly copied by artists, for whom it was a classic model for description of strong emotion, and by sculptors" (Kelticos).

http://www.kelticos.org/gallery/main.php?g2_itemId=879

The Icon of Roman History

The Colosseum is probably the most impressive building of the Roman Empire. Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater, this magnificent structure was the largest of its time.  While the monumental structure has fallen into ruin, even to today it remains an imposing and beautiful sight.

Romans were huge sports fans, and the Flavian emperors catered to their tastes by building splendid facilities. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheater, Rome's greatest arena, began under Vespasian in 70 CE and was completed under Titus, who dedicated it in 80 CE. The Flavian Amphitheater came to be known as the "Colosseum" because a gigantic statue of Nero called the Colossus stood next to it. "Colosseum" is a most appropriate description of this enormous entertainment. Its outer wall stand 159 feet high. It is an oval, measuring 615 by 510 feet, with a floor 280 by 175 feet. This floor was laid over a foundation of service rooms and tunnels that provided an area for the athletes, performers, animals, and equipment. The floor was covered by sand, arena in Latin, hence the term "arena" for a building of this type.
   Roman audiences watched a variety of athletic events, blood sports, and spectacles, including animal hunts, fights to the death between gladiators or between gladiators and wild animals, performances of trained animals and acrobats, and even mock sea battles, for which the arena would be flooded. The opening performances in 80 CE lasted 100 days, during which time it was claimed that 9,000 wild animals and 2,000 gladiators died for the amusement of the spectators.
   The amphitheater is a remarkable piece of planning, with easy access, perfect sight lines for everyone, and effective crowd control. Stadiums today are still based on this efficient plan. Each level of seats was laid over barrel-vaulted access corridors and entrance tunnels. The intersection of the barrel-vaulted entrance tunnels and the ring corridors created groin vaults. The walls on the top level of the arena supported a huge awning that could shade the seating areas. The curving outer wall of the Colosseum consists of three levels of arcades surmounted by a wall-like attic story. Each arc is framed by engaged columns. Entablature-like friezes mark the divisions between levels. Each level also uses a different architectural order, increasing in complexity from bottom to top: the plain Tuscan order on the ground level, Ionic on the second level, Corinthian on the third, and Corinthian pilasters on the fourth. The attic story is broken by small, square windows, which originally alternated with gilded-bronze shield-shaped ornaments called caratouches, supported on brackets that are still in place. 

   Emperors used the Colosseum to entertain the public with free games. Those games were a symbol of prestige and power and they were a way for an emperor to increase his popularity.

   Games were held for a whole day or even several days in a row. They usually started with comical acts and displays of exotic animals and ended with fights to the death between animals and gladiators or between gladiators. These fighters were usually slaves, prisoners of war or condemned criminals. Sometimes free Romans and even emperors took part in the action.

   The southern side of the Colosseum was felled by an earthquake in 847. Parts of the building - including the marble facade - were used for the construction of later monuments, including the St. Peter's Basilica.

The Legend in the Vase; The Red Figure Beauty

The Death of Sarpedon

   It is hard to believe how beautiful and informative crater vases can be since they were once simply used for mixing water and wine.  As promised, this is a pristine example of a red figured vase.  As one can see, the characters, while now with more of a brown/gold hue, were originally painted in a red color with a black background.  For an example of black figure, look into our prior post about the François vase.
   However, what is notable about this vase painting is the great deal of history set behind this.  Sarpedon was the son of Zeus, who took part in the Trojan War.  The gods in Olympus foresaw the death of his son, along with various other demigods, on the battlefield.  However, as the lord of the gods, he realized any attempt at intervention would cause chaos and revolution.  Therefore, as told in the Iliad,  Zeus had to watch as his son was killed by an enemy, Patroklos.  The other characters surrounding the dying Sarpedon are θανατος and 'Υπνος (Death and Sleep) with Hermes in the center, leading the wayward man to his final resting place.  Pottery like this helps to strengthen the popularity of myths and fill others with wine.
   Ephroinius, the painter of this vase around 510 BCE, is incredibly famous because he helped to make red figure ware popular.  By choosing a commonly known story, Ephroinius was able to bring together a popular theme.  He painted the story where: "There she sought out Sleep, the brother of Death, took him by the hand and asked his help: ‘Sleep, master of gods and men, if ever you answered a request of mine, do what I ask you now, and I will always owe you thanks. As soon as I lie down in Zeus’s arms, close his gleaming eyes in slumber, and I will give you a fine throne of everlasting gold, that my son, the lame god Hephaestus, will fashion with all his skill, and a stool as well where you can rest your shining feet, when you sip your wine.’ (Iliad 225-229)
Works Cited:
http://litmed.med.nyu.edu/Annotation?action=view&annid=10357

A Beauty of the Hellenistic Era

Nike of Samothrace

Sculpted in the hight of the Hellenistic era this magnificent masterpiece precisely defines the theatrical design for which this era in art is known. Before being placed in the Louvre collection, Nike remained on a hillside above the Sanctuary of the Gods on the island of Samothrace. In order to celebrate a great naval victory that took place during the early second century BCE, the sculpture is believed to have been constructed onto a marble warship. The goddess Nike was an obvious choice, being the goddess of victory, to have represented on the prow of this ship. We can acquire this information because of her posture, which also illustrates the Greek contrapposto, and the way her clothing flows in the wind. It is an interesting fact that this statue was supposed to be viewed from the left side. 

As you can see from the picture, Nike less detailed from its right side. But nonetheless, “the theatrical stance, vigorous movement, and billowing drapery of this Hellenistic sculpture are combined with references to the Classical period-prefiguring the baroque aestheticism of the Pergamene sculptors (Louvre).” The deep crevasses worked into the clothing, intensified twisting motion, oppositional forces creating a corkscrew energy, also known as torsion, and the incredible realism of this piece are all characteristics from this one-of-a-kind time period. By this, you can unquestionably tell the many ways which make this sculpture Hellenistic. “The decorative richness, sense of volume, and intensity of movement are characteristic of a Rhodian style that prefigures the baroque creations of the Pergamene school (180-160 BC) (Louvre).”

Work Cited: 
http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/winged-victory-samothrace

http://maa.missouri.edu/objects/castgallery/castnikesamothrace.html
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/Nike.htm

A Man Becomes a Legend: Augustus of Primaporta

Augustus of Primaporta dates back from the Early Roman Empire in the first century. “The depiction of Augustus portrays him as a victorious general making a speech. He is posed in the traditional contrapposto manner: his right leg is placed firmly forward while his left leg is bent and the heel slightly-raised. Augustus’ right arm is stretched out in a noble and controlled Roman gesture and is counter-balanced by the slightly-bent left leg. Combined with these idealized features of strength and beauty, there are also personal features of Augustus: a broad cranium, deep-set eyes, sharp ridges in his brow, a well-formed mouth and a small chin. Furthermore, his face depicted in the manner of Apollo was meant to associate Augustus’ abilities with those of the powerful god. Thus, Augustus wanted to portray himself as a perfect leader with flawless features, personifying the power and authority of the emperor who had the capacity to stabilize a society and an empire" (Museos Vaticanos). 

The work demonstrates the creative combination of church and state as well as illustrates the the use of propaganda by roman emperors to come. This idealistic sculpture captures his youthful essence and importance as a leader. When this was made in his honor, Augustus was a rather old man.  However he is obviously shown in his prime. The magnificent art piece really encompasses the significance he had in structuring the Roman regime. He is represented as larger than life; Augustus was much greater than a simple human being. His stance shows his authority and the position he held. On the other hand, his bare feet represent a man walking on sacred land.  In a way, this demonstrates the divine lineage Augustus was came from.  The depiction of Cupid riding a dolphin next to his right leg makes a reference to the entitlement of his, the Julian, family.  Shown on his breast plate are also many depictions which display his significant importance. The cornucopia is held by the personification of the earth showing the wealth and abundance Augustus brought with his reign, the personification of Caelus, the sky, links him with the heavens and the earth.

http://mv.vatican.va/4_ES/pages/z-Patrons/MV_Patrons_04_03.html