Odysseus and the Cyclops

By Eric Wilson

                This unorthodox marble sculptural group depicts the blinding of the Cyclops Polyphemus. For those who don’t know, this scene takes place in book 9 of the Odyssey. When Odysseus and his men find a cave full of supplies on the island of the one-eyed giants, they enter and set up camp, only to discover that it is the home of a giant named Polyphemus, who rolls a rock in the entrance of the cave to trap them.  After witnessing several of his men being eaten, Odysseus comes up with the plan that they will blind the creature and escape when he lets out his flock. Odysseus makes Polyphemus drunk. When the Cyclops asks Odysseus his name, Odysseus replies "No One."  As is shown in the sculpture, Odysseus and his men use a hardened wooden stake to poke out the monster's eye, and as the creature cries out for help, the other Cyclopes ignore him when he says that  “no one” has hurt him.

                The collection of marble sculptures that make up this unusual piece were found in 1957 in the grotto of Tiberius at Sperlonga, on the coast of Latium, South of Rome. It is believed to have been constructed for the emperor Tiberius during his reign from about 14 to 37 A.D, along with several other s
culptures depicting the adventures of Odysseus. It is a subject of debate as to whether this piece was an original Hellenistic era sculpture, or a Roman adaptation. It was found in several scattered fragments that were later recreated at the Sperlonga Museum. Fortunately, a considerable amount of the original piece was found intact. The grotto was probably once used as a summer dining room in an early Imperial era Roman villa, belonging to the emperor. The cave was used as a creative and fascinating mode of displaying the art. The grotto itself served as a representation of the cave that Odysseus and his men were trapped in and thus is a perfect recreation of this famous scene. This is one of just many excellent pieces that visually immortalize the deeds of Odysseus, and one that for many scholars of Greek and Roman literature is easily recognizable.

Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste

By Anna Deily

                 The city of Praeneste (now Palestrina) lies about 36 kilometers from Rome and boasts the Temple of Fortuna, thought by many to be the greatest architectural feat of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC), though others maintain that it was built a century earlier from the spoils of overseas conquests.

                Be that as it may, the architects of this massive sanctuary space built this temple on a grand scale. It rises almost 300 feet above the city below.  It is more than just a temple to Fortune. There is a lower sanctuary with three cellas, a basilica, and a curia.  Behind this lower temple are two caves with the famous Nile mosaic. Some believe that these caves were the sites where the oracle would give her readings.  Many terraces then lead to the upper sanctuary made of concrete faced with tufa, which was most likely faced with a marble veneer.

                Movement is a highly thought-out process in sanctuaries, and the Temple of Fortuna is no exception. Since the temple was constructed on a hill, the devotee had to climb quite a distance to reach the actual temple to Fortuna. First, he would ascend steep stairs leading to ramps covered with roofs supported by Doric columns with unusually slanted capitals. These ramps would then lead to more stairs, which lead to a shallow terrace with shops or offices and two hemicycles supported by Ionic columns and topped with coffered barrel vaults. Next, he could ascend more stairs to a third terrace with vaulted niches with either a post-and-lintel façade or an arched opening. Once again, the devotee would ascend more stairs to the final terrace, a deep rectangular space with Corinthian porticoes on the east and west sides. Finally, after climbing the last set of stairs, he would reach a theater-like area with a Corinthian portico capped with a double barrel vault. The circular temple of Fortuna is just past this area.  In this way the devotee progresses from a dark place (the covered ramps leading up to the temple) to the light, open terrace on the top level.  

Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli

Hadrian’s villa was not simply one structure, but many different buildings, gardens, and lakes created in about a half square mile area during 125-135 CE, during the Early Roman Imperial period.  Like many pleasure palaces of the 18^th and 19^th centuries such as Versailles or Sans Souci, Hadrian’s villa was strictly for pleasure and enjoyment.  The architects recreated their favorite places throughout the empire such as buildings from Alexandria, the Athenian Grove of Academe, and the Painted Stoa from the Athenian Agora, and even recreated some famous Greek sculptures, for the gardens and lakes including the Caryatids from the Erechtheion (link).  A large reflecting pool, called the Canopus, was framed by a colonnade with arches springing from the top, which would be a form incorporated into many later architectural works.

Grave Stele of a Little Girl

Unlike the freestanding, impersonal Archaic kouroi grave markers, Classical Greek stelae focus on domestic scenes that usually include women or children saying goodbye or “living out” an important memory.  In this fashion, on the Grave Stele of a Little Girl created around 450-440 BCE, a young girl seems to be saying goodbye to her pet birds for the last time, even kissing one gently on the beak.  Her garment almost seems translucent, revealing her innocent, tender skin, a mark of the High Greek Classic period, similar to Athena fixing her sandal on the Temple of Athena Nike (link).  Her stance and garment is reminiscent of the Parthenon friezes which also were carved around the same period.  To further the intimacy of this scene, the stele would have been painted in color to enhance some details such as the birds’ feathers and the girl’s sandal straps.

The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

In his equestrian statue, Marcus Aurelius is a powerful and successful military commander, but also is marked as an intellect because of his “philosopher” hairstyle, beard and stoic expression.  He sits atop his horse, who once crushed a barbarian underneath his raised hoof, with his hand reaching out as if he is addressing an audience.  He carries no weapons as if to suggest that he conquers effortlessly and by the will of the gods.  Although this Equestrian was created during the Early Roman Imperial period, circa 176 CE, many medieval Christians confused Marcus Aurelius for Constantine during the Middle Ages, and because of this, this gilded bronze sculpture was not melted down as many other equestrian statues were.  Since it is one of the only surviving equestrians from this period, it has influenced many other art works such as Donatello’s Gattamelata and the Equestrian of Charles the Bald.

Portrait of a Married Couple

Many Pompeian paintings were saved because of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, and this Portrait of a Married Couple from the 1^st century CE is no exception.  Painted on the wall of a Pompeian house, this couple stares out into the viewer’s space while holding signs of literacy and education.  The husband holds a scroll while the wife holds the more fashionable wax-filled diptych and stylus.  Because of their refined features, such as the sizes of their noses, ears, eyes, and mouths, this portrait is thought to be in the actual likeness of a couple living in Pompeii during the 1^st century.  Some scholars think this portrait was painted because of their wedding due to their careful poses, touch-ups, and dress.

Apoxyomenos

Although Lysippos admired Polykleitos’s work (link), he used a different ideal proportions for his nude, the Apoxyomenos, or the Man Scraping Himself, during the Late Greek Classical period, circa 350-325 BCE.  This work only remains in Roman copies, but Lysippos’s talent still shines through.  The soft S curve of this athlete’s stance, relatively small head, and wistful expression is a shift from the rigid intellect and hard figures from the Early and High Classical periods of Greek art.  The Scraper’s arm also extends into the viewer’s space instead of staying confined to one plane, as was common with older statues, which invites the viewer into almost become a part of the action, which is a clear step towards the Hellenistic period. 

Dying Warrior

There is more to the Greek Archaic period than painted vessels and kouroi.  The Temple of Aphaia in Aegina was constructed during this time, around 500 BCE, and its pediment figures are reminiscent of the kouros style.  On the West Pediment of this temple, many warriors are participating in an expedition at Troy with Athena in the center as the warrior goddess.  In the right corner of the pediment, a Dying Warrior raises himself on a bent elbow while pulling out a fatal arrow from his chest.  Even though the warrior is dying heroically, his face remains forward and unattached to the viewer down below with the characteristic “Archaic smile” and rigid features.  Unlike the kouros though, this warrior bends and is part of the narration of an event which marks it as a step towards the classical art period.