Grave Stele of a Little Girl

Unlike the freestanding, impersonal Archaic kouroi grave markers, Classical Greek stelae focus on domestic scenes that usually include women or children saying goodbye or “living out” an important memory.  In this fashion, on the Grave Stele of a Little Girl created around 450-440 BCE, a young girl seems to be saying goodbye to her pet birds for the last time, even kissing one gently on the beak.  Her garment almost seems translucent, revealing her innocent, tender skin, a mark of the High Greek Classic period, similar to Athena fixing her sandal on the Temple of Athena Nike (link).  Her stance and garment is reminiscent of the Parthenon friezes which also were carved around the same period.  To further the intimacy of this scene, the stele would have been painted in color to enhance some details such as the birds’ feathers and the girl’s sandal straps.

The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

In his equestrian statue, Marcus Aurelius is a powerful and successful military commander, but also is marked as an intellect because of his “philosopher” hairstyle, beard and stoic expression.  He sits atop his horse, who once crushed a barbarian underneath his raised hoof, with his hand reaching out as if he is addressing an audience.  He carries no weapons as if to suggest that he conquers effortlessly and by the will of the gods.  Although this Equestrian was created during the Early Roman Imperial period, circa 176 CE, many medieval Christians confused Marcus Aurelius for Constantine during the Middle Ages, and because of this, this gilded bronze sculpture was not melted down as many other equestrian statues were.  Since it is one of the only surviving equestrians from this period, it has influenced many other art works such as Donatello’s Gattamelata and the Equestrian of Charles the Bald.

Portrait of a Married Couple

Many Pompeian paintings were saved because of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, and this Portrait of a Married Couple from the 1^st century CE is no exception.  Painted on the wall of a Pompeian house, this couple stares out into the viewer’s space while holding signs of literacy and education.  The husband holds a scroll while the wife holds the more fashionable wax-filled diptych and stylus.  Because of their refined features, such as the sizes of their noses, ears, eyes, and mouths, this portrait is thought to be in the actual likeness of a couple living in Pompeii during the 1^st century.  Some scholars think this portrait was painted because of their wedding due to their careful poses, touch-ups, and dress.

Apoxyomenos

Although Lysippos admired Polykleitos’s work (link), he used a different ideal proportions for his nude, the Apoxyomenos, or the Man Scraping Himself, during the Late Greek Classical period, circa 350-325 BCE.  This work only remains in Roman copies, but Lysippos’s talent still shines through.  The soft S curve of this athlete’s stance, relatively small head, and wistful expression is a shift from the rigid intellect and hard figures from the Early and High Classical periods of Greek art.  The Scraper’s arm also extends into the viewer’s space instead of staying confined to one plane, as was common with older statues, which invites the viewer into almost become a part of the action, which is a clear step towards the Hellenistic period. 

Dying Warrior

There is more to the Greek Archaic period than painted vessels and kouroi.  The Temple of Aphaia in Aegina was constructed during this time, around 500 BCE, and its pediment figures are reminiscent of the kouros style.  On the West Pediment of this temple, many warriors are participating in an expedition at Troy with Athena in the center as the warrior goddess.  In the right corner of the pediment, a Dying Warrior raises himself on a bent elbow while pulling out a fatal arrow from his chest.  Even though the warrior is dying heroically, his face remains forward and unattached to the viewer down below with the characteristic “Archaic smile” and rigid features.  Unlike the kouros though, this warrior bends and is part of the narration of an event which marks it as a step towards the classical art period.

Fast Facts

Copy of Sosos' Dove Mosaic

Sosos of Pergamum -- Mosaicist who was only ever mentioned in literary sources (Pliny the elder)






Hephaistion -- Mosaicist who signed his work

The Lion Hunt by Hephaistion

Mykonos Vase

Mykonos vase -- early 7^th-century pithos (storage jar) with scenes from the Trojan War, including an early representation of the Trojan Horse (Boardman, Oxford History of Classical Art, 35-36)

Chigi Vase

Chigi vase -- A polychrome vase found in an Etruscan tomb with friezes of mythology and genre scenes






Vitruvius -- wrote a notable book about architecture including invaluable sketches and notations about buildings that no longer exist today.

Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus

Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii -- Roman trompe l'oeil (painting that looks like real objects) is heavily used in this scene. 

Ixion Being Punished

The House of the Vettii -- House in Pompeii filled with frescoes including this one of Ixion being punished on a flaming wheel

Praxitiles' Aphrodite

Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxitiles -- first lifesize reproduction of the nude female form

The Deaths of Sarpedon and Memnon

By Lott Gwin       

       

       First, a note on the term “neck amphora.”  The Greek word amphora is a combination of amphi (“on both sides”) and pher-/phor- (meaning “carry”).  Thus, the word refers to a vessel with handles on both sides; it was often used to carry and store wine.  The vase depicted here is called a neck amphora because its handles are placed on the “neck” (thinner upper section) of the jar rather than on the “belly” (thicker, rotund section under the neck). These jars are sometimes decorated with scenes from myth.  The one shown here is late archaic (it dates to about 500 BC) and is painted in the black-figure technique.  It is attributed to the Diosphos Painter, who was active in Athens from ca. 500-475.

       The Trojan war offered Greek vase painters and other artists ample material (for an overview, see S. Woodford, The Trojan War in Ancient Art [1993]).  This vase shows two variations on the theme of the removal of a great warrior’s corpse from the Trojan plain.  In each case the warrior is an important ally of the Trojans.

       On the obverse we see the Thanatos (Death) and Hypnos (Sleep) carrying away the corpse of the Lycian warrior Sarpedon – the subject of another more famous late archaic red-figure vase, the Euphronius crater, which was presented in a previous post (DATE).  Sarpedon, the son of Zeus, was killed in battle by Achilles’ friend Patroclus.  According to Iliad 16, Zeus expressed his grief by crying tears of blood.  The painter has added a number of details.  Blood oozes from the wounds in Sarpedon’s limp body.  As for the deities, they are not the spectacular winged beings of Euphronius’ painting (found HERE).  Instead, they each wear a chiton, corselet, greaves, and a Corinthian helmet; they each carry a spear.  In other words, they are represented as ordinary warriors.  The small winged figure between them is the psyche or soul of Sarpedon flying away.  Readers of the Iliad will recall how the soul is said to float free from the body at the moment of death and flutter off to Hades (cf. e.g. Iliad 22.361-2).

       On the reverse Memnon is being carried off the battlefield by his mother Eos, goddess of the dawn.  Memnon was slain by Achilles (possibly the figure on the left) in single combat.  Achilles fought on behalf of Nestor to avenge the death of Nestor’s son Antilochus at the hands of Memnon.  Nestor would have fought Memnon himself, had he not been too old.  Eos has large wings and is shown aloft.  She wears a chiton, a mantle, and a necklace.  The bird in the upper right-hand corner may stand for the Memnonides, the companions of Memnon who were turned into birds by Eos; it is said that they came every year to lament at his grave.  Eos, for her part, shed tears for him every morning: this is an aetiology for the drops of dew that appear at dawn.

Sources:

Dietrich von Bothmer, “Euphronios and Memnon.  Observations on a Red-Figure          Fragment,” Metropolitan Museum Journal 22 (1987) 5-11.        

Moore, Mary B., and Dietrich von Bothmer, Attic Black-Figured Neck-Amphorae,          Corpus Vasorum Antiquorum, Fascicule 4 (1976) 67-68.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/56.171.25

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1512832    

Aqueducts

Even though the Romans or the Etruscans did not invent the rounded arch, they used it the most both as a structural element and for design purposes.  Possibly the greatest culmination of the arch is in aqueducts. Aqueducts were huge water transporting structures supported by a series of arcades (arches placed side by side) that could span over 30 miles, as the Pont du Gard does in Nîmes, France.  The engineering that goes into creating such a massive structure is all about weight distribution with each arch buttressing the arches around it.  Although the aqueduct suggests Rome’s power to control the environment to provide for its people, it also suggests an extreme balance and harmony in its engineering.  Frontinus wrote a notable manual on aqueducts.

A Minoan Treasure

Bull Jumping

   Quite possibly the eldest of all posts to be seen on this blog, this fresco is quite an amazing look into the history of the island city-states around Greece.  A fresco is simply painted plaster, but lasts for an incredibly long time in terrific state.  This breathtaking look into the past was discovered in the ancient city of Knossos, Crete.  It is fascinating that such a fresco, pertaining to an activity with bulls, would be found in Knossos, due to the mythological past of this city.  Crete was once the kingdom of the mythical King Minos, and he reigned in Knossos as his own capital city.  If one remembers, Minos was the son of Zeus and the king of Crete who had restrained the Minotaur.  Born from his wife as half bull and half man the destructive brut was trapped in a labyrinth under his palace, constructed by the genius of the famous architect inventor of mythology, Daedalus   While this doesn't particularly pertain to the piece itself, in order to understand a work, one must understand the culture.  Most cities have a specific animal or god to whom they devote their lives and society.  As Athenians focused on Athena and her wisdom, these people demonstrated a complete and absolute obsession with bulls, depicting them in their architecture, art, culture, and games.
   The fresco itself, probably completed around 1500 BCE, describes a popular sport of the time.  "Bull leaping" involves directly approaching a violent bull.  This appears similar to the spanish practice of bullfighting, however, there are two major differences.  First, this activity involves no harm to the bull, since they are a worshiped animal; no weapons are used and it would be useless to attempt to hurt the bull during the sport.  Second, the challenge, while only possible for the most physically able, is not a feat of pure strength.  An athlete of this sport would have to stand firm as a charging bull would charge directly at the competitor.  The person would then literally grab the bull by the horns, be jolted onto its back, and, if successful, land successfully on its back safely.  Unlike many Roman games, this was not meant to be a blood sport.  Any person who could successfully do this action once would be considered a hero for life.  While this form of bull leaping could have been successful has been debated, but all agree that an activity similar to this was at the center of this culture.  Each people have their own specific and fascinating practice, and this fresco allows for us to look into the practices of an otherwise mythical and mysterious people.

http://hgustafs.myweb.usf.edu/
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/MinoanBullJump.htm
http://penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/53-3/mcinerney.pdf
http://www.villa-vacanze-creta.it/en/minoan-bull-jumping.aspx

The Roman Masterpiece to All Gods

The Classic of Rome; The Pantheon

Like the misfortune that befell the first attempt at the Parthenon, the Pantheon, though constructed in Rome's prime around 17 BCE and free from any threats from invaders, didn't last.  There is a myth that friends of Romulus had constructed the first Parthenon in his honor after his death, building the structure on the site where the king had "ascended to heaven".  However, this is a myth, and very few historians credit this mythology as a viable source. 

  The story of this magnificent temple built for all the gods is still told by the building itself.  While the temple which stands now in Campus Martius is very different in structure, the final sponsor, Hadrian, preserved the legend of the construction, allowing for the inscription on the entrance to read "M-Agrippa-F-Cos-Terum-Fecit".  This is a shortened version of the sentence "Marcus Agrippa Filius Lucii consul tertium fecit", with an implied "id".  This gives credit to the first emperor behind such a magnificent building, saying that "Marcus Agrippa, Servius, son of Lucius, third consul, made (this)".  Agrippa's original temple, while from the name, for all gods, was constructed especially for the gods Mars and Venus, the gods of the Julian family.  While this temple could be called simple in comparison to the structure we see today, Agrippa began the idea of a T-shaped temple, which would be continued on in the following two structures   Quick to be lost, the temple of this cousin of Augustus was burned down in the great fire of 80 CE.  Emperor Domitian then attempted to reconstruct the building soon after, but that temple soon found its end in 110 CE, when it was taken down by lightning.  Finally, the grandiose Emperor Hadrian decided to construct the final version of the Parthenon in 118 CE, still in tact to this day, dedicated to all the gods of Ancient Rome, in the Corinthian style (see glossary).

Red Porphyry Floor of the current Pantheon

   As one can see, the interior of the building is circular.  Filled with the most expensive marbles, even red porphyry, "the quintessential Imperial stone", used in every form of art, including "columns, paving, veneer, basins, sarcophagi, (and) statuary", found only in the Mons Porphyrites in Egypt.  The porphyry was then placed throughout the structure: in statues, along the floors, etc.  Unfortunately for this and many other Roman structures, during the Renaissance, many of these structures with priceless materials were destroyed or smelted down.  The artists would usually put the porphyry into the floors of the most famous Renaissance buildings and the bronze which once covered a great deal of the building was melted down to then cover new structures, put into new works of art.  While we can't see the magnificence of the statues and structures on the walls and buildings, it proved to be to difficult for people of the time to remove materials from the tiled floor, so upon visiting, one can still witness the beauty and intricacy of the tiled marble patterns.

The Oculus

    Hadrian had dreamed to make a temple like no other in Rome; strongly based off of that of the Greeks but incredibly original.  Set into three sections, one would walk through a pronaos, or "an entrance portico" (monolithic.com), then go past a sort of connecting archway, and finally enter the circular, magnificent belly of the beast.  Immediately after entering the temple, one almost feels forced to look up into the famous oculus.  Latin for eye, this is a completely open hole in the center of the concrete ceiling, while now covered by transparent glass for the safety of the marble underneath.  Concrete was moderately modern for the time.  Very convenient and well patterned, this demonstrates the changing of the times, as construction of such magnificent temples become much simpler.  On top of being a beautiful sight, as light will go through and ray down on various parts of the temple throughout the day, this both illuminates the temple and the thought of the gods on a higher dimension than us simple mortals.  Meant to demonstrate both grander and piety, this temple is the cornerstone of classical art history.


Works Cited:
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Pantheon.html 
http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/pantheon.htm
http://www.monolithic.com/stories/the-pantheon-rome-126-ad
http://www.whyrome.info/rome_pantheon_45.html