The Greek Father in the Acropolis

The Parthenon

   Unfortunately, the first temple built in 480 BCE, the original Parthenon, quickly found its demise at the hands of its enemies.  Within the first eight years after construction had begun, as this limestone-based prototype wasn't even completed, Persians broke into the city of Athens and burned down the entire structure.  Though this temple was dedicated to their namesake goddess, Athena, she was not with these people, as the destroyed ruins were scattered and used as defensive fortifications to separate themselves from such enemies, therefore preventing further loss or more lives, buildings, and valuable pieces of art.

   Soon, however, Athens witnessed its peak as the most prominent polis (term for ancient Greek city-states) in Ancient Greek history.   Having made peace with several of their most dangerous enemies, the Athenians were able to create a Pax Romana-like period of prosperity.  Then secure and able to produce such a structure, the politician Perikles led the new construction of a Parthenon to Athena in 447 BCE.  The Greek city states had recently formed the Delian League, a forced union of Greek city states in self-defense against the Persians.  However the League continued on with a capital in Athens, proving a growth in Athenian influence.  In reality, the Athenians didn't construct the current Parthenon at all.  The Delian
League's treasury was tapped for this construction as a sign of gratitude to the gods.  Perikles continued to overlook the construction, although architects Iktinos and Kalllikrates were the true artists behind the construction.  Built over the location of the Old Parthenon, the structure was made almost entirely of marble from the Pentelic Mountains, even though the foundations were made out of limestone and the doorways wood.  This building was originally made to hold a massive sculpture of Athena, which will be explained in its own post.
   An important note about this temple is that it's columns, and therefore the entirety of the temple, were made in the Doric order.  While very beautiful, this style is often called the most "simple" order.  Void of many extravagant designs, the column is composed of a simple capital (top portion parallell on the picture to the line which mentions the term) and shaft, which is the long, lined portion of the column.  The entrance is lined with eight columns

For anyone to do well on any Art Exam, one must know all three orders well.  While this will be mentioned later in separate posts, we also recommend this site: http://www.cmhpf.org/kids/dictionary/classicalorders.html 

Works Cited:
http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110tech/parthenon.html
http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/parthenon.html
http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Temples/Parthenon/index.htm

The Trojan War

The Trojan Horse

   This fresco was created in homage to the greatest war of all of ancient history.  This semi-mythological war involved almost every god and demigod of the age.  While a city that could have been "Troy" has been found, the actual war could not have happened as is said.  In an attempt to finalize the incredibly tedious ten year war, the Greeks decided to facade a surrender.  As a "peace offering", they sent a hallowed horse to the border of the unscalable Trojan fortifications.  As we know, Laocoon, along with the priestess Kassandra, had warned against the Trojan's acceptance of such a gift, but nonetheless the gift was brought into the city, and a great celebration arrose.  Athena is seen in the furthest left statue, with her shield and helmet, watching the scene unfold, over her sanctuary.  She will not defend her people, but allows for insanity to ensue.  In the hollowed horse, a handful of Greek soldiers waited for the perfect moment to strike.  After the Trojans had all returned to their homes, drunk and exhausted, the Greeks would invade the city, destroy the walls, and begin the final scene to the entire war.  

Bacchus in the Bowl

The Kylix of Dionysus

   While obviously Greek, many works like this kylix, also called Dionysus in a Boat, were ultimately discovered throughout Italy.  Attributed to the painter Exekias, the character in the center is clearly Dionysus (Bacchus in Latin).  This piece in particular was found in Etruria and is believed to have been completed around 530 BCE during the Archaic period of art in Greece.
   When looking at Roman and Greek art, one has to remember that there were no "tags" on the piece.  Other than the common maneuver of directly writing a character's name, there would be no means of telling which characters are shown.  Furthermore, a great deal of these people would be illiterate.  For this reason, each god was given particular items with which to be shown.  Dionysus, for example, would be recognized by grapes, being the god involved with drinking and wine.  The story depicted was a common legend.  Now transcribed in Ovid's Metamorphoses, this is the story describes an attempted kidnapping of this god.  When still a boy, Dionysus asked a group of seamen to take him away from his birth island.  The majority of the sailors wanted to kidnap him, and in mid-sail, he turned those unfaithful men into dolphins (depicted around the boat).

An example of a Kylix from the outside (not the same)

   A kylix was a moderately common devise of the time.  A very wide and deep wine glass, this cup would be used for a drinking game.  During a party, a person would be expected to drink until the entire depiction, as Dionysus is on the bottom of the glass, is revealed.  This was most likely a comedic twist, using Bacchus, the god of debauchery, to begin what would most likely be a drunken orgy.  Like the François vase, this is a black figure bowl, in the Attic style, finely made but also meant for everyday use.  Bowls like these are vital to art historians because they demonstrate the culture and thought process of the elite in society.  Unfortunately for the future of Greece, it was apparent that this through process centered around drinking massive amounts of alcohol.

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Munich+2044&object=Vase
http://www.cfa.arizona.edu/are130/files/greece.htm
http://www.bookrags.com/notes/met/PART19.html
http://www2.ocn.ne.jp/~greekart/vase/s_cup.html

The Gift of Emperor Trajan

Trajan's Forum; Beauty in the Heart of Rome

   Located across the via (common Latin term for "road" or "way", as in Via Appia) from the Primary Roman Forum, Emperor Marcus Ulpius Traianus, or Trajan, as an English-speaker would call him, developed this incredible work for the people of Rome during the turn of the second century CE.  As will be mentioned in a later post, the Forum Romanum was not only the epicenter of Rome the city, but Rome the empire.  Within the walls of this open space laid various temples, market places, and the Senate house.  However, by the time of Trajan, this forum had become much too overcrowded.  This problem had been solved before by emperors like Caesar, Nerva, and Augustus, but never on such a magnificent scale and never with such a significant attempt to make its patron immortal.

   In order to construct a forum, placed conveniently within a minute's walking distance from the original Forum, Trajan chose the greatest architect of the time, Apollodorus of Damascus.  The foundation was first laid in 107 CE by demolishing an entire hill.  The forum is then divided into two separate sections: a piazza (which simply refers to an open market or public square) and a basilica.  Contrary to common thought, a basilica wasn't a church.  Instead, this was a governmental building, similar to a court.  What personally makes this forum unforgettable is the "multi-level market" (stoa.org) in the piazza, among well paved roads that allowed for a major development in the economy and trade.  This was the first "shopping center" to ever have been built.  Thanks to the genius of Apollodorus and the piggy bank of Trajan, this new forum proved to be among the most magnificent ever created.  Even though this was a work for the people, it becomes clear that this emperor wanted to earn a reward from his charity.  As any great and ambitious leader, he wanted to be remembered.  In order to become unforgettable, he built a magnificent column in the center of Rome, within the forum, for all to see.

http://www.archaeology.org/9801/abstracts/trajan.html

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/trajan/model.html

http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/forumoftrajan.htm

http://www.roman-empire.net/tours/rome/forum-romanum.html
http://www.stoa.org/trajan/introductory_essay.html#emperor

Laocoon and His Sons

This work is predicted to be the original version of Laocoon and His Sons from the second century BCE, although some argue that it is a brilliant copy commissioned by an well known Roman patron in the first century CE. This intricate sculptural composition depicts a scene from the Trojan War when the priest, Laocoon, warned the Trojans not to bring the giant wooden horse left behind by the Greeks within their walls. The gods who supported the Greeks retaliated by sending serpents from the sea to destroy Laocoon and his sons as they walked along the sea shore. The struggling figures, anguished faces, intricate diagonal movements, and skillful unification of diverse forces in a complex composition all suggest a strong relationship between Rhodian and Pergamene sculptors. Although, sculpted in the round, the Laocoon was composed to be seen frontally and from close range, and the three figures resemble the relief sculpture on the altar of Zeus from Pergamon. This work epitomizes the classical structure of Hellenistic era. The intensity of emotion, showing pain and suffering, open composition, realism, torsion, and deep crevices (especially in the muscles) are all characteristics that define this figure.

Alexander the Great Mosaic

This artwork, Alexander the Great Confront Darius III at the Battle as Issus, is a Hellenistic mosaic which was found in the largest house in Pompeii called the House of the Faun. It was copied from an original painting and it made up of about four million tesserae, which almost immediately represents the intricacy and importance of this battle. It shows the intricate fight scene between two powerful leaders. The artist wants to portray the extremes of this battle by showing the specificity and realism of this scene. As we can see, Alexander and Darius are the two highest depicted figures, showing their power and authority. The artist includes foreshortening and chiaroscuro simulating the twisting and fast movement during this battle of death. Horses are running wild and spears are pointing in different directions towards the opponent. The artist also uses reflection, another rare artistic device during this time period. The composition of this mosaic is dominated by diagonals. The center holds an arrangement of the Persian wounded by Alexander intersecting the Persian holding back the horse. Many other figures make up this twisting and diagonal composition. We can conclude that this piece was meant for someone with very high class, possibly highlighting the power and wealth of the occupier of the house.

Works Cited
http://www.astro.rug.nl/~weygaert/alexandermosaic.html

The Throne of Satan

The Altar of Zeus in Pergamon

   While not literally the throne of Satan, this famous structure in the greek city-state of Pergamum was mentioned in the Christian Bible.  Revelations 2:12 reflects on "Pergamos.  Where Satan's throne is" due to its inscriptions and clear pagan ties, praising Zeus in the highest.  Like the Parthenon in Athens, the first attempt at this altar in "Greece" (referred to as such during the period, actually modern day Turkey) was taken apart once war broke out in order to fortify the city and prevent valuables from falling into the hands of the enemy.  An incredibly famous altar, to which many traveled far and wide to dedicate their offerings to Zeus, this structure could very well be called the epicenter of pagan worship, clearly believed to be such to Saint John the Apostle.  Like many magnificent structures of the time, this was called for by the victorious Eumenes II after a great war.  After proving victory in combat over the Galatians, he called for this giant marble structure to be built.  It is common belief that was the main sculptor.  However, a project so large and detailed required an army of workers to make such a particular goal come to life.
     Marble figures are still visible along the ridge of this work.  Similar to pieces like the Chryselephantine, this structure was expected to tell a story to the illiterate population.  A common motif in architecture, a frieze depicting Gigantomachy is again shown.  However, we begin to witness a change in the very culture of the people, as giants are no longer anthropomorphic, or in the same form as a common human, as the gods of the time were expected to be.  Since these beings were considered innocent sons of the goddess Gaia, the people felt uncomfortable in praising certain gods while approving of the suffering of others.  For this reason, giants were no longer gods as the gods are; these beings were changed in shape.  While commonly depicted as large men, the giants now had snakes growing out under their torsos.  This proved to be an argument against paganism, which seemed to credit these "demons" and the gods as uncannily similar in nature.  In fact, one group defeated the other only by chance.  Through this logic, every god from this mythology was indeed a demon.  Many came to sacrifice at the feet of the greatest god, or possibly the king of demons, the Satanic Zeus.

  After an incredible excavation project, the actual temple was transported out of Turkey by German archaeologists.  The marvelous altar now lies in the heart of the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.  However, the foundations of the region give us hints of the layout and importance of such a structure.  During this period, many talented artists and laborers alike were commissioned in order to create an acropolis similar to that in Athens in this "greek" city-state.  Furthermore, the altar was meant to be heart of the acropolis.  Built on a hill, this sculpture would project itself on the city, and all occurrences would be public.  The fact that this would be the altar to the greatest god, unlike that of Athens which was to their patron god, was meant to inspire many to travel from far and wide, therefore proclaiming the greatness of Pergamon.  Sacrifices, Jewish as Greek and Roman, can consist of different victims depending
on the request to the gods.  Certain animals could be used as penance, while other materials are used in praising the god for providence.  These sacrifices are meant to be expensive and dear.  This commonly involves cattle, valuable fluids, such as expensive oils, edible plants, and incense.  A city with such a great altar could make a fortune for holding these sacrificial goods, selling them at tripple the price to a weary traveler.  This altar, like most other structures built of the time, was created for more than gratefulness to a god.  The ability to look upon a city and see such gradeur raises the stature of such place and promotes synergy of a people.


Works cited:
http://www.romanarmy.net/sacrifices.htm
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/ZeusAltar.htm
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/pergamum-zeus-altar
http://www.formerthings.com/throneofsatan.htm

Aphrodite of Melos

Not all Hellenistic artists followed the descriptive customs. Many actually turned to the past, creating an different style by reexamining and borrowing features from earlier Classical styles and combining them in new ways. By this time, Praxiteles and Lysippos were famous  for their models, so many looked to their works. This was definitely the case with the sculptor of the Aphrodite of Melos, also known as the Venus de Milo. The figure recalls Praxiteles' work, especially with the S-curve composition. The figure has heavier proportions of High Classical sculpture, but the twisting stance and the strong projection of the knee make this Hellenistic art. Similarly, the rich three-dimensionality of the drapery, seemingly in the process of slipping off the figure, adds a note of erotic tension, which is also a characteristic of Hellenistic. "The Aphrodite of Melos is classical in essence, with innovatory features such as the spiral composition, the positioning in space, and the fall of the drapery over the hips (Louvre)." Because she is missing details, like her arms, no one quite knows which goddess she could be portraying. According to whether she held a bow or an amphora, she was Artemis or a Danaid. Because of her half-nakedness and her sensual, feminine curves, many think she represents Aphrodite. She also may have held an apple, an allusion to the Judgement of Paris, a crown, a shield, or a mirror in which she admired her reflection. However, there is also the possibility she might  the sea goddess Amphitrite, who was venerated on the island of Milo. So we might never truly understand who she was supposed to be depicting, but this sculpture definitely represents Hellenistic Classical art.

Works Cited: http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/aphrodite-known-venus-de-milo

Ara Pacis

One of the most extraordinary surviving roman monuments from the time of Augustus is the Ara Pacis. It was dedicated to Augustus for his triumphal return to the capital after three years spent establishing his rule in Gaul and Hispania.The Ara Pacis was originally aligned with a giant sundial, marked out on the pavement with lines and bronze inscriptions, using as its pointer an Egyptian obelisk. The monument itself consists of a rectangular enclosure with an open-air altar, mimicking Greek custom. It is made entirely of marble panels covered with intricate sculptures which presented powerful propaganda, uniting portraiture and allegory, religion and politics, and the private and the public. On the inner walls you can find engraved ox skulls symbolizing sacrificial offerings at the altar during annual commemorations. There are also garlands on the inside showing the continuing peace and prosperity that Augustus brought to the Roman world. On the exterior, natural prosperity continues in lower reliefs of decorations populated by animals. On the front and back are allegorical scenes showing the mythical history of Rome and the divine lineage of Augustus. Two continuous processions are engraved on the long ends representing real historical events rather than myth or allegory. The Ara Pacis was made to celebrate imperial power as part of a larger complex declaring the civic generosity of Rome’s emperors which will bring continuing peace and prosperity since Augustus's successors have already been born.

http://www.learner.org/courses/globalart/work/175/index.html

Temple of Athena Nike

This Classical temple is considerably smaller than the other temples of the Acropolis. It is the first building that greets the visitors who approach the Propylaia and its elegant Ionic features balance the dominating Doric character of the Propylaia. It faces to the east and its entrance is lined with four monolithic Ionic columns that support a shallow porch. The west end is similarly treated with four Ionic columns and a porch, but they preceded a blind wall. The inclusion of a tetrastyle (four columns) at the back of the temple was necessary for this side faced the entrance to the Acropolis.

This temple was surrounded by a parapet or a low wall, faced with sculptured panels depicting Athena presiding over the preparation of a celebration by winged Nikes (victory figures). The parapet no longer exists, but some panels have survived, including the greatly admired Nike Adjusting Her Sandal. Unlike the decorative swirls of heavy fabric covering the Parthenon goddesses, or the weighty, pleated robes of the Erechtheion caryatids, the textile covering this Nike appears delicate and light, clinging to her body like we silk, one of the most discretely erotic images in ancient art.

Early in its history it was a place of worship for deities associated with wars, perhaps Bronze Age “Nike” gods or goddesses, which with time fused with the cult of Athena Nike of later centuries. During the Archaic era a small temple stood on the site that faced an altar to its east. This building was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE along with the rest of the Acropolis, and was not rebuilt until 435 BCE.

The Classical temple that has survived was completed in 420 BCE. From several ancient accounts  and by Pausanias we know the statue of Athena Nike in its cella was made of wood and held a pomegrade in the right hand and a helmet in the left. Since it had no wings, as it was customary for Nike statues of the time, the temple acquired the name Apteros Nike (wing-less victory). It is said that the statue was deprived of wings so it could never leave the city of Athens.