The Roman Masterpiece to All Gods

The Classic of Rome; The Pantheon

Like the misfortune that befell the first attempt at the Parthenon, the Pantheon, though constructed in Rome's prime around 17 BCE and free from any threats from invaders, didn't last.  There is a myth that friends of Romulus had constructed the first Parthenon in his honor after his death, building the structure on the site where the king had "ascended to heaven".  However, this is a myth, and very few historians credit this mythology as a viable source. 

  The story of this magnificent temple built for all the gods is still told by the building itself.  While the temple which stands now in Campus Martius is very different in structure, the final sponsor, Hadrian, preserved the legend of the construction, allowing for the inscription on the entrance to read "M-Agrippa-F-Cos-Terum-Fecit".  This is a shortened version of the sentence "Marcus Agrippa Filius Lucii consul tertium fecit", with an implied "id".  This gives credit to the first emperor behind such a magnificent building, saying that "Marcus Agrippa, Servius, son of Lucius, third consul, made (this)".  Agrippa's original temple, while from the name, for all gods, was constructed especially for the gods Mars and Venus, the gods of the Julian family.  While this temple could be called simple in comparison to the structure we see today, Agrippa began the idea of a T-shaped temple, which would be continued on in the following two structures   Quick to be lost, the temple of this cousin of Augustus was burned down in the great fire of 80 CE.  Emperor Domitian then attempted to reconstruct the building soon after, but that temple soon found its end in 110 CE, when it was taken down by lightning.  Finally, the grandiose Emperor Hadrian decided to construct the final version of the Parthenon in 118 CE, still in tact to this day, dedicated to all the gods of Ancient Rome, in the Corinthian style (see glossary).

Red Porphyry Floor of the current Pantheon

   As one can see, the interior of the building is circular.  Filled with the most expensive marbles, even red porphyry, "the quintessential Imperial stone", used in every form of art, including "columns, paving, veneer, basins, sarcophagi, (and) statuary", found only in the Mons Porphyrites in Egypt.  The porphyry was then placed throughout the structure: in statues, along the floors, etc.  Unfortunately for this and many other Roman structures, during the Renaissance, many of these structures with priceless materials were destroyed or smelted down.  The artists would usually put the porphyry into the floors of the most famous Renaissance buildings and the bronze which once covered a great deal of the building was melted down to then cover new structures, put into new works of art.  While we can't see the magnificence of the statues and structures on the walls and buildings, it proved to be to difficult for people of the time to remove materials from the tiled floor, so upon visiting, one can still witness the beauty and intricacy of the tiled marble patterns.

The Oculus

    Hadrian had dreamed to make a temple like no other in Rome; strongly based off of that of the Greeks but incredibly original.  Set into three sections, one would walk through a pronaos, or "an entrance portico" (monolithic.com), then go past a sort of connecting archway, and finally enter the circular, magnificent belly of the beast.  Immediately after entering the temple, one almost feels forced to look up into the famous oculus.  Latin for eye, this is a completely open hole in the center of the concrete ceiling, while now covered by transparent glass for the safety of the marble underneath.  Concrete was moderately modern for the time.  Very convenient and well patterned, this demonstrates the changing of the times, as construction of such magnificent temples become much simpler.  On top of being a beautiful sight, as light will go through and ray down on various parts of the temple throughout the day, this both illuminates the temple and the thought of the gods on a higher dimension than us simple mortals.  Meant to demonstrate both grander and piety, this temple is the cornerstone of classical art history.


Works Cited:
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Pantheon.html 
http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/pantheon.htm
http://www.monolithic.com/stories/the-pantheon-rome-126-ad
http://www.whyrome.info/rome_pantheon_45.html

The Lost Treasure of the Parthenon

The Chryselephantine Athena Parthenos

Marble replica

     While the Parthenon had been built to show the splendor of Athens and dedicate their victory over the Persians to Athena, the actual architecture of the structure was particularized around a certain item.  While lost in time and never seen by the modern eye, we know that a certain forty foot sculpture did exist and lied in the center of the temple for centuries, known through the records of various historians of the time.  Furthermore, we are given an idea of how the sculpture may have looked through the multiple copies constructed while the original was still in existence.  This magnificent Athena Parthenos, while lost, is still considered the pinnacle of ancient art.

      However, no replica could ever match the grandeur of the original.  A "chryselephantine"is not a specific piece, but a style.  Like many Greek styles of art, this form of sculpture was carried over from the Egypt.  The style is not measured by strokes, but of material.  A combination of Greek words χρυσος (pronounced "chrysos", meaning gold) and ηλεφαντινος (pronounced elephantinos, meaning ivory), the name describes the object.  While this is the most famous of all chryselephantine works, to the extent that if capitalized, this one of Athena is implied, the only necessary processies for creating such a sculpture would be to create the body of the image out of ivory and put it in a "drapery of gold" (britannica.com).  Unfortunately, there are no longer replicas of such a piece in its original materials, since the two are incredibly expensive and ivory now illegal to produce, being made of elephant tusks.  However, this sculpture was part of the "splurge of the century".  The Persian War had just ended, and the Delian League had fixed it's capital in Athens.  With this shift, Athens became the most influential city state in Greece.  With such victories, no material was considered to expensive or ostentatious when praising their patron goddess, especially since the entire League would be paying, over the lone government.  The sculpture, along with the base, depicting Pandora's birth, are believed to have been completed by the famous sculptor and architect Phidias in 438 BCE, 8 years before his death, during the High Classical Period of art.
        As most art of the ancient time, this colossal sculpture delivered a message.  The majority of the population would be illiterate, so physical representations were often necessary and expected.  The great size and heroic frame of the
goddess of Athens depicted supremacy over the other city states.  In her right hand sits a nike, a goddess of victory, in order to remind the citizens of the great and victorious war that their ancestors had undergone.  Meant to inspire citizens and please the gods who had granted them such a victory, no entity was spared and no symbol undepicted.

Replica denoting appearance

Her breastplate was said to have been adorned with snakes and the head of Medusa, given to her by Perseus through commonly known myth.  In this along with other additions, Phidias demonstrates astounding detail, telling stories without a single syllable.  The theme of victory through just warfare continues on the shield in her left hand.  The outside of this shield depicts the Amazonomachy, or the war where Athenians under the legendary hero Theseus defeated the Amazons.  Inside lies the Gigantomachy, when Zeus ultimately defeated the giants.  In fact, as the evolution of art continues, the giants were no longer seen as human, but terrible, snake-like beasts, increasing the sensation of the man-like gods triumphing over incredible forces.  A third victory is said to have been depicted on the sandals of Athena, which tell of the Centauromachy, against centaurs who had attempted to steal the bride Hippodamia on her wedding day.  Theseus, again an Athenian hero, preformed yet another famous battle against an the formidable and destructive centaurs.  Obviously, these battles mean to idealize the war with the Persians, stating that as powerful as they were, the Greeks were even more so.  The shield of Athena is covering a snake, which while relative to the myth of Ericthronius, also seems to be a promise to the Greeks that Athena would protect them from any danger to come.  Obviously propaganda, this piece is still magnificent.  A tragic loss, its beauty was clearly so great that others had to make replicas, which are atleast a looking glass into this amazing past.

http://www.ancient-greece.org/art/athena-statue.html

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/116377/chryselephantine
http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~filippou/Research/Fedeas/pheidias.htm

http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/politics/parthenon.html
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mythology/Amazonomachy.html

http://mythopoetry.com/mythopoetics/essay_macary_chryselephantine.html

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Athena+Parthenos&object=Sculpture

Memory of a Revolution

Alexander Sarcophagus

  This magnificent sarcophagus was discovered in the ancient city of Sidon, now in modern day Lebanon.  Beyond the impeccable beauty of the piece, the exquisitely sculpted work tells of a change in the times and turmoil as Alexander the Great began his conquest.  Sidon had originally been a Phoenician port city and pseudo-capital, which had branched out birthed the creation of Carthage and Tyre.  However, during the time of this piece's construction, Alexander the Great had arrived, taken over this ancient city, and promoted a Hellenistic way of life.  While the city was called "persian" since it payed homage and tributes to the shah, Sidon was not directly owned by the shah and basically had its own independence despite offerings.  For this reason, when the Macedonians invaded simply asking for the same, the Sidonians welcomed them with open arms in the fourth century BCE.
     Since this sarcophagus is located in the royal necropolis of Sidon, the structure is believe to house the king of the time, Abdolonymos.  This object clearly shows the significance of the Macedonians in the eyes of the people of Sidon.  Sculpted on each side is the Battle of Issus, the famous battle during 333 BCE where Alexander defeated Darius III.  Clearly adored by the people, Alexander is shown dominating the Persians, adorned in the skin of the Nemean Lion.  Alexander had boasted that he descended from the line of Heracles, and the "defense" of this belief shows impeccable faith in this leader.  Despite the many wars that the two peoples faced against each other, their unity remains as shown through this piece.  Even at death, the king of this region wished to show hommage to such a great and powerful ruler.  Created from the combined Greek, Macedonian, and Phoenician styles, this piece shows the brotherhood which can come out of war.

http://www.booksie.com/non-fiction/article/yavirac/the-alexander-sarcophagus
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204621904574246094055079788.html
http://www.istanbularkeoloji.gov.tr/web/27-106-1-1/muze_-_en/collections/archaeological_museum_artifacts/alexander_sarcophagus

The Gift of Water

The Thermae Diocletiani

    Known in English as the Baths of Diocletian, this magnificent Early Imperial structure combined the great tradition of the old age and the advanced architecture of this new period.  Like most works of the time, this bathhouse was meant to immortalize the late Emperor Diocletian.  While Emperor Maxentius actually headed the operation that started in 298 CE, it would be left in the honor of the deceased ruler.  Meant to be larger than life, this single bathhouse was able to contain more than three thousand people at a time.  While based off of the Baths of Caracalla and Trajan, the tremendous size and terrific location made this the most memorable of the imperial gifts, finalized in 306 CE.  Built on the Viminal Hill, one of the original seven hills of Rome, water flowed through a series of aqueducts to the spacious rooms.  No expense was spared on this process, as the floors were entirely mosaic and frescoes lined almost every wall.  This structure lasted until the fourth century and the invasion of the Goths.  During their pillage, these people demolished the aqueduct, therefore making water much to scarce to be spared on recreation.  The physical structure underwent a great deal of damage and was eventually built over, so, other than the little saved by Michelangelo in later years, almost none of the original building remains. The portion of the baths that has been conserved has been converted into the Santa Maria deligi Angeli e dei Martiri in Rome.
    This, like the majority of bathhouses, was much more than a space filled with water.  Citizens gathered to this house which not only held baths but libraries, forums for public speaking, gymnasia, and swimming pools.  A social center only matched by the fountain for women, these baths proved to be the center for discussion, socializing, and serious debate.  Obviously hygienic and a positive influence on the welfare of the people, the baths also promoted a healthy city.  The center of this particular house consisted of the caldarium, tepidarium, and frigidarium.  Each in descending order of heat, the caldarium would hold scolding water and was usually used for therapeutic healing or relaxation.  The tepidarium was rather mild in comparison, and were the "warm" baths.  Finally, the frigidarium, by the name, contained frigid water and was also used for healing.  An incredible work, this system of bathhouses, while lost to the ages, will always be remembered as a centerpiece of Roman culture.

http://archeoroma.beniculturali.it/en/museums/national-roman-museum-baths-diocletian
http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/bathsofdiocletian.htm
http://content.lib.utah.edu/cdm/ref/collection/coa/id/4327
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Thermae_Diocletiani.html
http://www.webphoto.ro/italia/thermae-diocletiani-diocletians-bath-antiquity-museum-of-rome.html

The Funerary Vase of a Child

The Eleusis Amphora

   While this vase may appear to be another, simple black figure vase, this piece proves to be extraordinary both in style and in history.  This proves to be a transitional piece, "proto-Attic", as this period during the mid 7th century proved to be the end of the simple Geometric period.  Also known as the Orientalizing period, black figure pottery began to rise in popularity.  With this style came clear depictions of specific characters, never before so unambiguous.  For example, on the neck, highest frieze of this piece, we can clearly see Odysseus blinding the cycloptic son of Poseidon, Polyphemus.  Works like these begin the later common practice of telling common stories with famous characters. through pottery.  While not as visually stunning as a vase like the François, this Attic black figure is a milestone.
   Found in Eleusis, Greece, this amphora was used to hold the ashes of a small child.  Usually for storing wine or oil, this use of the amphora is rather interesting.  Furthermore, the message given by the vase if fascinating.  First we see Odysseus blinding the drunk giant and then convincing him to tell his father that "no one", the name Odysseus gives him self in this act, did this to him; a demonstration of incredible cunning.  Moving downwards, a lion is seen on the shoulder, or frieze under the neck, having sneaked up onto a boar and now preparing an assault.  Furthermore, in the widest portion of the vase, or the body, Perseus is shown fleeing from the Gorgon sisters after discovering how to approach Medusa undetected and kill her without being seen.  While none of these acts were done entirely by fair play, a theme clearly develops.  This cunning means of defeating a formidable enemy occurs often enough that assumptions could be made.  Most vases following this period would be painted to demonstrate a theme or appreciation to a specific god or demigod.  However, this fledgeling vase most likely reflected the theme of cunningness towards the child inside.  The amphora was most likely painted with these specific figures in order to permanently mark this child as a sly and clever boy.

http://www.archaeologychannel.org/video-guide/video-guide-menu/video-guide-summary/106-the-amphora-of-eleusis
http://www.artres.com/C.aspxVP3=ViewBox_VPage&VBID=2UN365YYC5KV&IT=ZoomImageTemplate01_VForm&IID=2F3C2S6W9DQW&PN=2&CT=Search&SF=0
http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/tools/pottery/painters/keypieces/protoattic/eleusis.htm
http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/ARTH/arth200/politics/greeks_other.html
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=04&region=eusb
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/introtogreece/lect10/img7erlyprotattic.html

H. W. and Anthony F. Janson, History of Art: the Western Tradition Pearson/Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2004

The Greek Father in the Acropolis

The Parthenon

   Unfortunately, the first temple built in 480 BCE, the original Parthenon, quickly found its demise at the hands of its enemies.  Within the first eight years after construction had begun, as this limestone-based prototype wasn't even completed, Persians broke into the city of Athens and burned down the entire structure.  Though this temple was dedicated to their namesake goddess, Athena, she was not with these people, as the destroyed ruins were scattered and used as defensive fortifications to separate themselves from such enemies, therefore preventing further loss or more lives, buildings, and valuable pieces of art.

   Soon, however, Athens witnessed its peak as the most prominent polis (term for ancient Greek city-states) in Ancient Greek history.   Having made peace with several of their most dangerous enemies, the Athenians were able to create a Pax Romana-like period of prosperity.  Then secure and able to produce such a structure, the politician Perikles led the new construction of a Parthenon to Athena in 447 BCE.  The Greek city states had recently formed the Delian League, a forced union of Greek city states in self-defense against the Persians.  However the League continued on with a capital in Athens, proving a growth in Athenian influence.  In reality, the Athenians didn't construct the current Parthenon at all.  The Delian
League's treasury was tapped for this construction as a sign of gratitude to the gods.  Perikles continued to overlook the construction, although architects Iktinos and Kalllikrates were the true artists behind the construction.  Built over the location of the Old Parthenon, the structure was made almost entirely of marble from the Pentelic Mountains, even though the foundations were made out of limestone and the doorways wood.  This building was originally made to hold a massive sculpture of Athena, which will be explained in its own post.
   An important note about this temple is that it's columns, and therefore the entirety of the temple, were made in the Doric order.  While very beautiful, this style is often called the most "simple" order.  Void of many extravagant designs, the column is composed of a simple capital (top portion parallell on the picture to the line which mentions the term) and shaft, which is the long, lined portion of the column.  The entrance is lined with eight columns

For anyone to do well on any Art Exam, one must know all three orders well.  While this will be mentioned later in separate posts, we also recommend this site: http://www.cmhpf.org/kids/dictionary/classicalorders.html 

Works Cited:
http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110tech/parthenon.html
http://www.ancient-greece.org/architecture/parthenon.html
http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Temples/Parthenon/index.htm

The Trojan War

The Trojan Horse

   This fresco was created in homage to the greatest war of all of ancient history.  This semi-mythological war involved almost every god and demigod of the age.  While a city that could have been "Troy" has been found, the actual war could not have happened as is said.  In an attempt to finalize the incredibly tedious ten year war, the Greeks decided to facade a surrender.  As a "peace offering", they sent a hallowed horse to the border of the unscalable Trojan fortifications.  As we know, Laocoon, along with the priestess Kassandra, had warned against the Trojan's acceptance of such a gift, but nonetheless the gift was brought into the city, and a great celebration arrose.  Athena is seen in the furthest left statue, with her shield and helmet, watching the scene unfold, over her sanctuary.  She will not defend her people, but allows for insanity to ensue.  In the hollowed horse, a handful of Greek soldiers waited for the perfect moment to strike.  After the Trojans had all returned to their homes, drunk and exhausted, the Greeks would invade the city, destroy the walls, and begin the final scene to the entire war.  

Bacchus in the Bowl

The Kylix of Dionysus

   While obviously Greek, many works like this kylix, also called Dionysus in a Boat, were ultimately discovered throughout Italy.  Attributed to the painter Exekias, the character in the center is clearly Dionysus (Bacchus in Latin).  This piece in particular was found in Etruria and is believed to have been completed around 530 BCE during the Archaic period of art in Greece.
   When looking at Roman and Greek art, one has to remember that there were no "tags" on the piece.  Other than the common maneuver of directly writing a character's name, there would be no means of telling which characters are shown.  Furthermore, a great deal of these people would be illiterate.  For this reason, each god was given particular items with which to be shown.  Dionysus, for example, would be recognized by grapes, being the god involved with drinking and wine.  The story depicted was a common legend.  Now transcribed in Ovid's Metamorphoses, this is the story describes an attempted kidnapping of this god.  When still a boy, Dionysus asked a group of seamen to take him away from his birth island.  The majority of the sailors wanted to kidnap him, and in mid-sail, he turned those unfaithful men into dolphins (depicted around the boat).

An example of a Kylix from the outside (not the same)

   A kylix was a moderately common devise of the time.  A very wide and deep wine glass, this cup would be used for a drinking game.  During a party, a person would be expected to drink until the entire depiction, as Dionysus is on the bottom of the glass, is revealed.  This was most likely a comedic twist, using Bacchus, the god of debauchery, to begin what would most likely be a drunken orgy.  Like the François vase, this is a black figure bowl, in the Attic style, finely made but also meant for everyday use.  Bowls like these are vital to art historians because they demonstrate the culture and thought process of the elite in society.  Unfortunately for the future of Greece, it was apparent that this through process centered around drinking massive amounts of alcohol.

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/artifact?name=Munich+2044&object=Vase
http://www.cfa.arizona.edu/are130/files/greece.htm
http://www.bookrags.com/notes/met/PART19.html
http://www2.ocn.ne.jp/~greekart/vase/s_cup.html

The Gift of Emperor Trajan

Trajan's Forum; Beauty in the Heart of Rome

   Located across the via (common Latin term for "road" or "way", as in Via Appia) from the Primary Roman Forum, Emperor Marcus Ulpius Traianus, or Trajan, as an English-speaker would call him, developed this incredible work for the people of Rome during the turn of the second century CE.  As will be mentioned in a later post, the Forum Romanum was not only the epicenter of Rome the city, but Rome the empire.  Within the walls of this open space laid various temples, market places, and the Senate house.  However, by the time of Trajan, this forum had become much too overcrowded.  This problem had been solved before by emperors like Caesar, Nerva, and Augustus, but never on such a magnificent scale and never with such a significant attempt to make its patron immortal.

   In order to construct a forum, placed conveniently within a minute's walking distance from the original Forum, Trajan chose the greatest architect of the time, Apollodorus of Damascus.  The foundation was first laid in 107 CE by demolishing an entire hill.  The forum is then divided into two separate sections: a piazza (which simply refers to an open market or public square) and a basilica.  Contrary to common thought, a basilica wasn't a church.  Instead, this was a governmental building, similar to a court.  What personally makes this forum unforgettable is the "multi-level market" (stoa.org) in the piazza, among well paved roads that allowed for a major development in the economy and trade.  This was the first "shopping center" to ever have been built.  Thanks to the genius of Apollodorus and the piggy bank of Trajan, this new forum proved to be among the most magnificent ever created.  Even though this was a work for the people, it becomes clear that this emperor wanted to earn a reward from his charity.  As any great and ambitious leader, he wanted to be remembered.  In order to become unforgettable, he built a magnificent column in the center of Rome, within the forum, for all to see.

http://www.archaeology.org/9801/abstracts/trajan.html

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/trajan/model.html

http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/forumoftrajan.htm

http://www.roman-empire.net/tours/rome/forum-romanum.html
http://www.stoa.org/trajan/introductory_essay.html#emperor

Laocoon and His Sons

This work is predicted to be the original version of Laocoon and His Sons from the second century BCE, although some argue that it is a brilliant copy commissioned by an well known Roman patron in the first century CE. This intricate sculptural composition depicts a scene from the Trojan War when the priest, Laocoon, warned the Trojans not to bring the giant wooden horse left behind by the Greeks within their walls. The gods who supported the Greeks retaliated by sending serpents from the sea to destroy Laocoon and his sons as they walked along the sea shore. The struggling figures, anguished faces, intricate diagonal movements, and skillful unification of diverse forces in a complex composition all suggest a strong relationship between Rhodian and Pergamene sculptors. Although, sculpted in the round, the Laocoon was composed to be seen frontally and from close range, and the three figures resemble the relief sculpture on the altar of Zeus from Pergamon. This work epitomizes the classical structure of Hellenistic era. The intensity of emotion, showing pain and suffering, open composition, realism, torsion, and deep crevices (especially in the muscles) are all characteristics that define this figure.