Alexander the Great Mosaic

This artwork, Alexander the Great Confront Darius III at the Battle as Issus, is a Hellenistic mosaic which was found in the largest house in Pompeii called the House of the Faun. It was copied from an original painting and it made up of about four million tesserae, which almost immediately represents the intricacy and importance of this battle. It shows the intricate fight scene between two powerful leaders. The artist wants to portray the extremes of this battle by showing the specificity and realism of this scene. As we can see, Alexander and Darius are the two highest depicted figures, showing their power and authority. The artist includes foreshortening and chiaroscuro simulating the twisting and fast movement during this battle of death. Horses are running wild and spears are pointing in different directions towards the opponent. The artist also uses reflection, another rare artistic device during this time period. The composition of this mosaic is dominated by diagonals. The center holds an arrangement of the Persian wounded by Alexander intersecting the Persian holding back the horse. Many other figures make up this twisting and diagonal composition. We can conclude that this piece was meant for someone with very high class, possibly highlighting the power and wealth of the occupier of the house.

Works Cited
http://www.astro.rug.nl/~weygaert/alexandermosaic.html

The Throne of Satan

The Altar of Zeus in Pergamon

   While not literally the throne of Satan, this famous structure in the greek city-state of Pergamum was mentioned in the Christian Bible.  Revelations 2:12 reflects on "Pergamos.  Where Satan's throne is" due to its inscriptions and clear pagan ties, praising Zeus in the highest.  Like the Parthenon in Athens, the first attempt at this altar in "Greece" (referred to as such during the period, actually modern day Turkey) was taken apart once war broke out in order to fortify the city and prevent valuables from falling into the hands of the enemy.  An incredibly famous altar, to which many traveled far and wide to dedicate their offerings to Zeus, this structure could very well be called the epicenter of pagan worship, clearly believed to be such to Saint John the Apostle.  Like many magnificent structures of the time, this was called for by the victorious Eumenes II after a great war.  After proving victory in combat over the Galatians, he called for this giant marble structure to be built.  It is common belief that was the main sculptor.  However, a project so large and detailed required an army of workers to make such a particular goal come to life.
     Marble figures are still visible along the ridge of this work.  Similar to pieces like the Chryselephantine, this structure was expected to tell a story to the illiterate population.  A common motif in architecture, a frieze depicting Gigantomachy is again shown.  However, we begin to witness a change in the very culture of the people, as giants are no longer anthropomorphic, or in the same form as a common human, as the gods of the time were expected to be.  Since these beings were considered innocent sons of the goddess Gaia, the people felt uncomfortable in praising certain gods while approving of the suffering of others.  For this reason, giants were no longer gods as the gods are; these beings were changed in shape.  While commonly depicted as large men, the giants now had snakes growing out under their torsos.  This proved to be an argument against paganism, which seemed to credit these "demons" and the gods as uncannily similar in nature.  In fact, one group defeated the other only by chance.  Through this logic, every god from this mythology was indeed a demon.  Many came to sacrifice at the feet of the greatest god, or possibly the king of demons, the Satanic Zeus.

  After an incredible excavation project, the actual temple was transported out of Turkey by German archaeologists.  The marvelous altar now lies in the heart of the Pergamon Museum in Berlin.  However, the foundations of the region give us hints of the layout and importance of such a structure.  During this period, many talented artists and laborers alike were commissioned in order to create an acropolis similar to that in Athens in this "greek" city-state.  Furthermore, the altar was meant to be heart of the acropolis.  Built on a hill, this sculpture would project itself on the city, and all occurrences would be public.  The fact that this would be the altar to the greatest god, unlike that of Athens which was to their patron god, was meant to inspire many to travel from far and wide, therefore proclaiming the greatness of Pergamon.  Sacrifices, Jewish as Greek and Roman, can consist of different victims depending
on the request to the gods.  Certain animals could be used as penance, while other materials are used in praising the god for providence.  These sacrifices are meant to be expensive and dear.  This commonly involves cattle, valuable fluids, such as expensive oils, edible plants, and incense.  A city with such a great altar could make a fortune for holding these sacrificial goods, selling them at tripple the price to a weary traveler.  This altar, like most other structures built of the time, was created for more than gratefulness to a god.  The ability to look upon a city and see such gradeur raises the stature of such place and promotes synergy of a people.


Works cited:
http://www.romanarmy.net/sacrifices.htm
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Arts/ZeusAltar.htm
http://www.sacred-destinations.com/turkey/pergamum-zeus-altar
http://www.formerthings.com/throneofsatan.htm

Aphrodite of Melos

Not all Hellenistic artists followed the descriptive customs. Many actually turned to the past, creating an different style by reexamining and borrowing features from earlier Classical styles and combining them in new ways. By this time, Praxiteles and Lysippos were famous  for their models, so many looked to their works. This was definitely the case with the sculptor of the Aphrodite of Melos, also known as the Venus de Milo. The figure recalls Praxiteles' work, especially with the S-curve composition. The figure has heavier proportions of High Classical sculpture, but the twisting stance and the strong projection of the knee make this Hellenistic art. Similarly, the rich three-dimensionality of the drapery, seemingly in the process of slipping off the figure, adds a note of erotic tension, which is also a characteristic of Hellenistic. "The Aphrodite of Melos is classical in essence, with innovatory features such as the spiral composition, the positioning in space, and the fall of the drapery over the hips (Louvre)." Because she is missing details, like her arms, no one quite knows which goddess she could be portraying. According to whether she held a bow or an amphora, she was Artemis or a Danaid. Because of her half-nakedness and her sensual, feminine curves, many think she represents Aphrodite. She also may have held an apple, an allusion to the Judgement of Paris, a crown, a shield, or a mirror in which she admired her reflection. However, there is also the possibility she might  the sea goddess Amphitrite, who was venerated on the island of Milo. So we might never truly understand who she was supposed to be depicting, but this sculpture definitely represents Hellenistic Classical art.

Works Cited: http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/aphrodite-known-venus-de-milo

Ara Pacis

One of the most extraordinary surviving roman monuments from the time of Augustus is the Ara Pacis. It was dedicated to Augustus for his triumphal return to the capital after three years spent establishing his rule in Gaul and Hispania.The Ara Pacis was originally aligned with a giant sundial, marked out on the pavement with lines and bronze inscriptions, using as its pointer an Egyptian obelisk. The monument itself consists of a rectangular enclosure with an open-air altar, mimicking Greek custom. It is made entirely of marble panels covered with intricate sculptures which presented powerful propaganda, uniting portraiture and allegory, religion and politics, and the private and the public. On the inner walls you can find engraved ox skulls symbolizing sacrificial offerings at the altar during annual commemorations. There are also garlands on the inside showing the continuing peace and prosperity that Augustus brought to the Roman world. On the exterior, natural prosperity continues in lower reliefs of decorations populated by animals. On the front and back are allegorical scenes showing the mythical history of Rome and the divine lineage of Augustus. Two continuous processions are engraved on the long ends representing real historical events rather than myth or allegory. The Ara Pacis was made to celebrate imperial power as part of a larger complex declaring the civic generosity of Rome’s emperors which will bring continuing peace and prosperity since Augustus's successors have already been born.

http://www.learner.org/courses/globalart/work/175/index.html

Temple of Athena Nike

This Classical temple is considerably smaller than the other temples of the Acropolis. It is the first building that greets the visitors who approach the Propylaia and its elegant Ionic features balance the dominating Doric character of the Propylaia. It faces to the east and its entrance is lined with four monolithic Ionic columns that support a shallow porch. The west end is similarly treated with four Ionic columns and a porch, but they preceded a blind wall. The inclusion of a tetrastyle (four columns) at the back of the temple was necessary for this side faced the entrance to the Acropolis.

This temple was surrounded by a parapet or a low wall, faced with sculptured panels depicting Athena presiding over the preparation of a celebration by winged Nikes (victory figures). The parapet no longer exists, but some panels have survived, including the greatly admired Nike Adjusting Her Sandal. Unlike the decorative swirls of heavy fabric covering the Parthenon goddesses, or the weighty, pleated robes of the Erechtheion caryatids, the textile covering this Nike appears delicate and light, clinging to her body like we silk, one of the most discretely erotic images in ancient art.

Early in its history it was a place of worship for deities associated with wars, perhaps Bronze Age “Nike” gods or goddesses, which with time fused with the cult of Athena Nike of later centuries. During the Archaic era a small temple stood on the site that faced an altar to its east. This building was destroyed by the Persians in 480 BCE along with the rest of the Acropolis, and was not rebuilt until 435 BCE.

The Classical temple that has survived was completed in 420 BCE. From several ancient accounts  and by Pausanias we know the statue of Athena Nike in its cella was made of wood and held a pomegrade in the right hand and a helmet in the left. Since it had no wings, as it was customary for Nike statues of the time, the temple acquired the name Apteros Nike (wing-less victory). It is said that the statue was deprived of wings so it could never leave the city of Athens.

The Orator of the Ages

Aulus Metellus

Lovingly called the Orator for the sculpture's decisive stance, this bronze is yet another look into Etruscan art history.  The northern neighbors of the Romans until their ultimate demise by their southern counterparts, these people were incredibly influential on art to come.  Much more realistic than their Greek counterparts, these Italian sculptors were incredibly realistic, portraying the character as he was in life.  Following in this modest realism, Metellus was depicted with shoes.  This may sound simple or odd to point out, but a barefoot character would be compared to a god, while Aulus is being recognized as a great and powerful man, but still only a man. While in roman garb, it is common thought that this man was Etruscan. In fact, the only reason why we know his name is due to the inscription in his toga.  The sculpture was found in Etruria with Etruscan inscription, and is believed to have been made recollecting the beginning of the Roman Republic.  In fact, many believe that this man was in charge of keeping peace during the fall of many Etruscan city-states.  The Romans were taking city after city, and Metellus's mastery of the Etruscan language along with his speaking abilities made him a major asset, vital enough to be forever placed in bronze.  While most likely Etruscan in background, the inscription on the back of his toga states that he was a roman magistrate.  Created during the turn towards the second century BCE, most likely during the time when this man was still fresh in the memory of his people.  His ability to calm the masses during a volatile time is transcribed to the people in his outstretched arm.  However, the truly amazing aspect of the piece is its bronze work.  While notable just as a masterfully done sculpture, this also symbolized a dying use of bronze in Rome.  Marble sculpting became more popular  and the Greek influenced Etruscan culture soon died with their independence.

http://www.anselm.edu/academic/history/hdubrulle/westernciv1/text/generalinfo/gallery/gallery50.htm
http://arthistoryoftheday.wordpress.com/2011/08/19/aulus-metellus-late-2nd-or-early-1st-century-bce/
http://kbagdanov.wordpress.com/tag/aulus-metellus/

Trajan's Greatest Boast

The Column of Trajan

   In order to ensure his continuing memory after his time, Trajan placed this astounding column in the center of his forum.  Sculpted out of a hundred foot tall marble slate, the structure was topped with a bronze statue of the man himself.  However, during the Renaissance  this was replaced, and the statue moved to ground level on the forum, and will be explained further.

   Like most arches found in ancient Rome, this column tells a story.  Trajan used the column, masterfully created by Apollodorus, to remind the citizens to come of his victory in the two Dacian Wars, which took place during the early second century.  Before he became an emperor, Trajan had to prove himself in battle.  By presenting oneself as a dignified warrior, an emperor was usually more able keep a firm grasp of power.  While still a simple soldier, he was positioned off of the Danube River in the year 99 CE.  While there, he began to believe that the Dacians, who dwelled on the other side of the body of water, had great sums of gold.  This was a reasonable belief, since the mountains along this territory were rich in ore deposits.  His ability to have supervised the region for so long was clearly an asset during this war.
By the time he was an emperor, he had hoped that defeating these people and taking the region would fill the Empire's emptying coffers.  Simply put, in order for the Empire to expand, wages must be met for soldiers to go to the ends of the earth.  This column testifies to his handling of the situation and a continuation of the Empire through his work with the Senate.  Generally, Romans felt uncomfortable having any competition for control, so eliminating this threat proved to kill two birds with one full scale invasion.  Incredibly detailed, as expected from an architect such as Apollodorus, commonly thought of as the greatest of his time, this column depicts every single battle and action that occurred in said war, beginning with the first steps onto enemy soil and ending with the capture of the Dacian King Decebolus.  However, what can be described within a moderate amount of time is that the Romans eliminated the advancing threat provided by this Germanic tribe.  In turn, Rome gained the coveted gold mines in the Carpathian Mountains and therefore was able to continue to spread it's dominance throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.
   While the column now displays a bronze statue of Saint Peter, patron saint and first bishop of Rome, carrying his trademark "keys to the kingdom" in one hand and a book in the other, the column was originally topped by a giant bronze statue of the emperor himself.  Clearly putting himself into an Augustus of Primaporta-esque pose, the man clearly had an assertion to be remembered as one of the greatest emperors alongside Augustus himself.  This near obsession with becoming unforgettable is continued through the incredibly lengthy base he put under the column.  On this base, he lists every single political position that he has held, his relation to Caesar himself, his destruction of various German tribes, and his lasting position as "Patri Patriae" or Father of the Nation, an incredibly boastful title for a man who was clearly going to be remembered through his works alone.

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/trajan/column.html

http://www.stoa.org/trajan/

http://www.aviewoncities.com/rome/trajanscolumn.htm

http://www.unrv.com/five-good-emperors/dacian-wars.php
http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Romanwar.html