Fayum Portraits

By Hannah Marier

A number of mummy portraits, painted on wood or linen, came to Europe in the late 19th century from a region in Egypt known as Fayum. Wood and linen have rarely survived elsewhere, but these paintings were preserved, thanks to Egypt’s dry climate.  They were painted in the encaustic or hot wax technique: the artist melted beeswax and combined it with different colored pigments to create a special paint mixture.

Fayum is a low-lying area a little over 37 miles from Cairo. On the higher ground behind the west bank of the Nile, out of reach of the floods, ancient Greek residents had buried their deceased. The wealthy citizens of the region would have portraits made for their mummies. Many of the paintings have inspired awe for their realistic details and use of color.  André Malraux, the French novelist and art theorist, described the portraits as “glowing with a flame of immortal life”. Some of the panels were even decorated with gold.

The portrait shown here is thought to belong to the middle-late Antonine period, ca. AD 161-192.  But dating the portraits is fraught with difficulties. As with most Fayum portraits, the technique used is that of encaustic (sometimes tempera was used, i.e., pigments in egg-yolk). Gold leaf was found in several of the pigments, so the lady in the portrait must have been fairly rich. The woman shown is young, and she is wearing a yellow and blue tunic edged with gold leaf, a golden wreath, a large necklace, also of gold, and emerald earrings. The artist cleverly obtained all of his hues from the colors white, red, black, white, and a minimal amount of green for the emeralds.

This particular panel is currently on display in the British Museum. Most of the portraits found in Fayum are exhibited there. Although the panel is displayed in the Egyptian Antiquities section, it could arguably be considered Greek because of its subject.

Roman Portraiture

This Portrait Head of an Elder below displays the Roman Republic concept of verism very accurately.  Contrasting with the Greek idealism, verism emphasizes the signs of age, wisdom and, experience.  This man, most likely a patrician, is individualized and highly realistic.  Some believe that this extensive portrait sculpture created during the Roman Republic grew from the death mask tradition that is visually expressed in the Barberini Togatus, on the left.  Created around a similar time, this full-length sculpture shows a patrician carrying two generations of his ancestors, likely a father and grandfather.  The patrician also is highly individualized and his age is emphasized through his wrinkles and toga.

Discobolus (Discus Thrower)

Even though the sculptor Myron was famous for creating life-like animal sculptures, he also created humans in the midst of action.  His Discobolus or Discus Thrower created during the Early Classical period is no exception.  Originally, this piece was bronze, but we would not have this sculpture if the Romans had not created a marble copy of it due to the unreliability of bronze over time.  This discus thrower has an idealized body that shows an interest in anatomy, but his hair seems to be stuck in the Archaic period with its cap-like treatment.  Although this piece does have one foot in the classical period, it is rather planar, almost like a relief with no background.  The action Myron chooses to sculpt is also rather static because the thrower is frozen at the top of his motion; he is neither moving forward or backward.  This frozen state changes as the Classical period evolves into the Hellenistic period of Greek art.

The Temple of the Olympian Zeus

The Temple of the Olympian Zeus at the foot of the Athenian Acropolis is simply a very large Greek temple.  Built on the base of a 5^th century Doric temple, this Corinthian remake designed by the Roman architect Cossutius in the 2^nd century BCE seems to dwarf the Parthenon in the distance.  Even though it was not completed until the reign of Hadrian almost three centuries later, this temple is purely Greek peripteral: an enclosed cella surrounded by a wall of columns on all sides.  Since this temple was created over a large span of time, archeologists are unsure whether the 55 ft. 5 in. columns are purely Greek or Roman copies.  Even though these columns are all that remain of this colossal structure, its size and Corinthian decorations can still be admired today.

Arch of Constantine

This massive, three portal, triumphal arch commemorates Constantine’s victory over Maxentius at the battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312, as the laudatory inscription indicates.  The entire arch suggests his power over any possible threat.  Constantine reused reliefs from Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius’ triumphal arches, as seem in the image below.  
The term for repurposed art is spolia.  Each of these reliefs express the Roman ideals of strength, piety, and courage visually.  Compared to the reliefs created in Constantine’s time, the figures from the older triumphal arches are much more idealized and recognizable while Constantine’s reliefs are more in the style of the Late Imperial period: abstracted and symbolic. 

This massive architectural structure, constructed during the Late Roman Empire, represents Emperor Constantine’s power and military victory over the Dacians and Maxentius at the battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 AD. Among the few remaining arches in Rome, Constantine expresses his unification of the Roman Empire from the prior tumultuous tetrarchy. In addition, the domination and might of Constantine is explicitly recognizable through the spolia, a term for reused building materials. Objects from Hadrian, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius’ monuments were placed on this three portal arch with the intention of dictating to the Roman people that Constantine was as powerful and successful as these previous Roman rulers.

The subject matter of the Arch of Constantine begins at the bottom with depictions of the defeated in a new sense of style with larger bodily features and a more rigid stance as this architecture serves as a bridge from the classical into the medieval world. In the middle, Constantine places spolia from Hadrian’s monument not only linking him with Hadrian but also proving to his people his rounded character with references to hunting and philosophy. Lastly, the top layer illustrates prisoners, those captured from this military defeat, with abnormal clothing—pants, not the conventional togas worn at the time. 

Commodus as Hercules

Emperor Commodus may not have had the best political, administrative, or social skills, seeing how everyone close to him planned his strangulation, he did commission some art works including this bust of himself as Hercules.  On his head, he has the skin of the Nemean lion, in his hands he holds the apples from the Garden of the Hesperides, and he also has Hercules’ club resting on his shoulder: all references to Hercules’ labors.  His likeness does reference his father, Marcus Aurelius (link), but his depiction as Hercules was seen as arrogant and vain.  Despite all this, the drillwork used to produce this bust is extremely refined and well done as it creates a sort of movement when hit by light.  

Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine

Although Maxentius’s rule over Rome was brief, he called for the repair of older buildings which would have a greater effect on future art than could have been expected.  One of the most notable repairs was to the Basilica Nova, now called the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, which served as an administrative area and an area where the emperor could be the supreme judge.  In the past, most basilicas were simply halls with columns inside, but Maxentius wanted this basilica to be larger and grander, so he used the barrel vaulting technique usually found in baths.  The central hall was covered with groin vaults and the side aisles, which also served as a buttressing system, were barrel vaulted.  The apse at the end of the hall served as a focal point for anyone entering from one of the three entrances on the opposite side.  This basilican style was adopted later by the Early Christians for their church architecture.

Flavian Women

This Young Flavian Woman bust on the right stares at the viewer with idealized skin and perfect hair, but also with distinct facial features such as deep set eyes and a heavy brow.  Her hair is piled high on her head in the latest fashion, and must have taken skill and drillwork to create in marble.  Her idealized features coupled with real likeness is similar to Augustus Prima Porta and was created in the same Early Imperial art period.  In contrast, this Middle Aged Flavian Woman on the left is less idealized and more natural.  Her skin shows the passage of time, and although her hair is also in a fashionable up do, it is not nearly as complex as her younger counterpart.  Because her age shows, this woman would have been revered and looked up to when this bust was made.  While this sculpture reflects more of the Roman Republic verism, it was created around the same time as the Young Flavian Woman, about the 1^st century CE.

The Charioteer

Even though the mark of a Greek Classic art piece, the contrapposto, is missing in this bronze sculpture of a Charioteer, the individualized face and feet reflect a break from the Greek Archaic period, and the introduction of something new.  His eyes are made of onyx and his eyelashes and lips are made of copper.  Created merely ten years after the Kritios Boy (link), this charioteer, found at the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, is has an idealized body and an expression of extreme concentration.  The inscription commemorates the charioteer for winning the Pythian Games, so this statue is most likely of a real person.  

Odysseus and the Cyclops

By Eric Wilson

                This unorthodox marble sculptural group depicts the blinding of the Cyclops Polyphemus. For those who don’t know, this scene takes place in book 9 of the Odyssey. When Odysseus and his men find a cave full of supplies on the island of the one-eyed giants, they enter and set up camp, only to discover that it is the home of a giant named Polyphemus, who rolls a rock in the entrance of the cave to trap them.  After witnessing several of his men being eaten, Odysseus comes up with the plan that they will blind the creature and escape when he lets out his flock. Odysseus makes Polyphemus drunk. When the Cyclops asks Odysseus his name, Odysseus replies "No One."  As is shown in the sculpture, Odysseus and his men use a hardened wooden stake to poke out the monster's eye, and as the creature cries out for help, the other Cyclopes ignore him when he says that  “no one” has hurt him.

                The collection of marble sculptures that make up this unusual piece were found in 1957 in the grotto of Tiberius at Sperlonga, on the coast of Latium, South of Rome. It is believed to have been constructed for the emperor Tiberius during his reign from about 14 to 37 A.D, along with several other s
culptures depicting the adventures of Odysseus. It is a subject of debate as to whether this piece was an original Hellenistic era sculpture, or a Roman adaptation. It was found in several scattered fragments that were later recreated at the Sperlonga Museum. Fortunately, a considerable amount of the original piece was found intact. The grotto was probably once used as a summer dining room in an early Imperial era Roman villa, belonging to the emperor. The cave was used as a creative and fascinating mode of displaying the art. The grotto itself served as a representation of the cave that Odysseus and his men were trapped in and thus is a perfect recreation of this famous scene. This is one of just many excellent pieces that visually immortalize the deeds of Odysseus, and one that for many scholars of Greek and Roman literature is easily recognizable.

Temple of Fortuna at Praeneste

By Anna Deily

                 The city of Praeneste (now Palestrina) lies about 36 kilometers from Rome and boasts the Temple of Fortuna, thought by many to be the greatest architectural feat of Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BC), though others maintain that it was built a century earlier from the spoils of overseas conquests.

                Be that as it may, the architects of this massive sanctuary space built this temple on a grand scale. It rises almost 300 feet above the city below.  It is more than just a temple to Fortune. There is a lower sanctuary with three cellas, a basilica, and a curia.  Behind this lower temple are two caves with the famous Nile mosaic. Some believe that these caves were the sites where the oracle would give her readings.  Many terraces then lead to the upper sanctuary made of concrete faced with tufa, which was most likely faced with a marble veneer.

                Movement is a highly thought-out process in sanctuaries, and the Temple of Fortuna is no exception. Since the temple was constructed on a hill, the devotee had to climb quite a distance to reach the actual temple to Fortuna. First, he would ascend steep stairs leading to ramps covered with roofs supported by Doric columns with unusually slanted capitals. These ramps would then lead to more stairs, which lead to a shallow terrace with shops or offices and two hemicycles supported by Ionic columns and topped with coffered barrel vaults. Next, he could ascend more stairs to a third terrace with vaulted niches with either a post-and-lintel façade or an arched opening. Once again, the devotee would ascend more stairs to the final terrace, a deep rectangular space with Corinthian porticoes on the east and west sides. Finally, after climbing the last set of stairs, he would reach a theater-like area with a Corinthian portico capped with a double barrel vault. The circular temple of Fortuna is just past this area.  In this way the devotee progresses from a dark place (the covered ramps leading up to the temple) to the light, open terrace on the top level.  

Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli

Hadrian’s villa was not simply one structure, but many different buildings, gardens, and lakes created in about a half square mile area during 125-135 CE, during the Early Roman Imperial period.  Like many pleasure palaces of the 18^th and 19^th centuries such as Versailles or Sans Souci, Hadrian’s villa was strictly for pleasure and enjoyment.  The architects recreated their favorite places throughout the empire such as buildings from Alexandria, the Athenian Grove of Academe, and the Painted Stoa from the Athenian Agora, and even recreated some famous Greek sculptures, for the gardens and lakes including the Caryatids from the Erechtheion (link).  A large reflecting pool, called the Canopus, was framed by a colonnade with arches springing from the top, which would be a form incorporated into many later architectural works.

Grave Stele of a Little Girl

Unlike the freestanding, impersonal Archaic kouroi grave markers, Classical Greek stelae focus on domestic scenes that usually include women or children saying goodbye or “living out” an important memory.  In this fashion, on the Grave Stele of a Little Girl created around 450-440 BCE, a young girl seems to be saying goodbye to her pet birds for the last time, even kissing one gently on the beak.  Her garment almost seems translucent, revealing her innocent, tender skin, a mark of the High Greek Classic period, similar to Athena fixing her sandal on the Temple of Athena Nike (link).  Her stance and garment is reminiscent of the Parthenon friezes which also were carved around the same period.  To further the intimacy of this scene, the stele would have been painted in color to enhance some details such as the birds’ feathers and the girl’s sandal straps.

The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

In his equestrian statue, Marcus Aurelius is a powerful and successful military commander, but also is marked as an intellect because of his “philosopher” hairstyle, beard and stoic expression.  He sits atop his horse, who once crushed a barbarian underneath his raised hoof, with his hand reaching out as if he is addressing an audience.  He carries no weapons as if to suggest that he conquers effortlessly and by the will of the gods.  Although this Equestrian was created during the Early Roman Imperial period, circa 176 CE, many medieval Christians confused Marcus Aurelius for Constantine during the Middle Ages, and because of this, this gilded bronze sculpture was not melted down as many other equestrian statues were.  Since it is one of the only surviving equestrians from this period, it has influenced many other art works such as Donatello’s Gattamelata and the Equestrian of Charles the Bald.

Portrait of a Married Couple

Many Pompeian paintings were saved because of the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, and this Portrait of a Married Couple from the 1^st century CE is no exception.  Painted on the wall of a Pompeian house, this couple stares out into the viewer’s space while holding signs of literacy and education.  The husband holds a scroll while the wife holds the more fashionable wax-filled diptych and stylus.  Because of their refined features, such as the sizes of their noses, ears, eyes, and mouths, this portrait is thought to be in the actual likeness of a couple living in Pompeii during the 1^st century.  Some scholars think this portrait was painted because of their wedding due to their careful poses, touch-ups, and dress.

Apoxyomenos

Although Lysippos admired Polykleitos’s work (link), he used a different ideal proportions for his nude, the Apoxyomenos, or the Man Scraping Himself, during the Late Greek Classical period, circa 350-325 BCE.  This work only remains in Roman copies, but Lysippos’s talent still shines through.  The soft S curve of this athlete’s stance, relatively small head, and wistful expression is a shift from the rigid intellect and hard figures from the Early and High Classical periods of Greek art.  The Scraper’s arm also extends into the viewer’s space instead of staying confined to one plane, as was common with older statues, which invites the viewer into almost become a part of the action, which is a clear step towards the Hellenistic period. 

Dying Warrior

There is more to the Greek Archaic period than painted vessels and kouroi.  The Temple of Aphaia in Aegina was constructed during this time, around 500 BCE, and its pediment figures are reminiscent of the kouros style.  On the West Pediment of this temple, many warriors are participating in an expedition at Troy with Athena in the center as the warrior goddess.  In the right corner of the pediment, a Dying Warrior raises himself on a bent elbow while pulling out a fatal arrow from his chest.  Even though the warrior is dying heroically, his face remains forward and unattached to the viewer down below with the characteristic “Archaic smile” and rigid features.  Unlike the kouros though, this warrior bends and is part of the narration of an event which marks it as a step towards the classical art period.

Fast Facts

Copy of Sosos' Dove Mosaic

Sosos of Pergamum -- Mosaicist who was only ever mentioned in literary sources (Pliny the elder)






Hephaistion -- Mosaicist who signed his work

The Lion Hunt by Hephaistion

Mykonos Vase

Mykonos vase -- early 7^th-century pithos (storage jar) with scenes from the Trojan War, including an early representation of the Trojan Horse (Boardman, Oxford History of Classical Art, 35-36)

Chigi Vase

Chigi vase -- A polychrome vase found in an Etruscan tomb with friezes of mythology and genre scenes






Vitruvius -- wrote a notable book about architecture including invaluable sketches and notations about buildings that no longer exist today.

Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus

Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii -- Roman trompe l'oeil (painting that looks like real objects) is heavily used in this scene. 

Ixion Being Punished

The House of the Vettii -- House in Pompeii filled with frescoes including this one of Ixion being punished on a flaming wheel

Praxitiles' Aphrodite

Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxitiles -- first lifesize reproduction of the nude female form